Unification of Germany 1
UNIFICATION OF GERMANY (1871)
(THE EVOLUTION OF NATIONAL FEELING
IN GERMANY)
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Nation & Nationalism (Only required for an answer on evolution of national feeling in
Germany, not for a direct question on unification of Germany.)
v The terms ‘nation’ and ‘nationalism’ are open-ended concepts. This must be kept in mind
while attempting a study of the evolution of national feeling in Germany.
v The modern sense of the words can be dated to the late 18th century.
v Over time, different concepts of nationalism emerged.
i. One was the political notion, drawing on the French Revolution, which declared that
people who swore allegiance to the universal ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity
were ‘citizens’ comprising the French nation.
ii. But on the other side of the Rhine, nationality came to be determined by factors such as
language, folkways and ethnic origin. This was cultural nationalism. After the
appearance of Social Darwinism in the late 19th century, it also became a matter of
‘blood’ and racial stock.
v In Central and Eastern Europe, the awareness of nationality preceded and even helped
in the creation of the nation-state. The study of the evolution of national feeling in
Germany is thus linked to the problem of unification of Germany.
2. Introduction to Unification of Germany
v This was a long-drawn process, which was shaped by both the internal polity, society and
economy of the German states, especially Prussia and Austria, and, as A.J.P. Taylor wrote,
the international concerns of the Great Powers in keeping Germany divided to maintain
the balance of power in Central Europe.
v Also look at the important role played by Bismarck.
II. PROBLEMS TO UNIFICATION
v Certain obstacles to the process of unification had always existed.
1) GEOGRAPHICAL – Germany was located in the heartland of Europe and had no
natural frontiers that defined its boundaries.
2) CULTURAL – Political developments of the past gave rise to a dual German identity. By
the 18th century, areas to the west of the river Elbe became the seat of French ‘high’
culture, while regions east of the Elbe developed an anti-West and anti-Catholic
identity.
3) RELIGIOUS – After the Reformation, frequent wars took place between the German
princes and the Holy Roman Emperor. The period of Counter-Reformation further
decentralized Germany. The Diet of Augsburg (1555) lay down that a German province
would follow the religion of her prince. So north Germany remained largely Protestant,
while the south and west became predominantly Catholic.
4) POLITICAL – In the late 18th century, the Holy Roman Empire was on the decline and
Germany was split up into 314 larger and smaller states and free cities.
5) SOCIAL – There was also a division along class lines. The aristocracy was cosmopolitan
in nature. For the masses, the test of nationality was still religion. Thus there existed a
parochial culture at the local level.
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III. FACTORS AFFECTING UNIFICATION
1. Austria and Prussia
v The fate of Germany was dependent upon the relationship between the two most important
German states – Austria and Prussia.
i. The Habsburg Empire in Austria was composed of several racial and linguistic
groups. It was staunchly Catholic and German in a very cosmopolitan sense.
ii. The non-German, largely Protestant Slav people dominated Prussia, ruled by the
Hohenzollern dynasty.
v By the 18th century, neither was ready to see the other in a unified Germany.
2. Role of the Great Powers
v German unification was also hampered by Great Powers of Europe – Britain, France and
Russia, who saw concentration of power in Germany as a threat to their own power and the
European balance of power.
IV. 18th CENTURY
1. Language
v In the late 18th century, there was no clear German identity.
v In this period, the administrative needs of the states gave rise to an educated middle class
in Germany. They rejected the dominant French culture of the elite and tried to foster
German values through a common German language.
v The first step in this direction had already been taken when the Bible was translated by
Luther into German, which gave German the status of a literary language, though it was
actually the dialect of Saxony.
2. Romanticism
v This was also the age of Romanticism, as opposed to the Reason of the Enlightenment.
v It represented a belief in the diversity of human beings and attacked French culture.
v Certain writers and poets like Lessing, Klopstock, Hamaan and Herder provided the solid
foundation for a nationalist literature. But these German intellectuals had no direct link
with politics.
V. IMPACT OF NAPOLEON
v German national identity first emerged in response to the challenge of Napoleonic
aggression, in a definite anti-French form.
1) Napoleon unwittingly paved the way for unification by reducing the number of the states
from 314 to 39, though he had done it for administrative convenience.
2) The Holy Roman Empire was formally dissolved in 1806.
3) Rhineland was annexed to France.
4) The rest of Germany, outside Prussia and Austria, was organized into the Confederation
of the Rhine.
5) Like the rest of his empire, several reforms were introduced in these regions, leading to
modernization.
6) Austria and Prussia both suffered defeat at the hands of Napoleon. But unlike Austria,
the defeat of Prussia was complete, increasing Prussian resentment. So wide-ranging
Prussian reforms were carried out to strengthen the power of the state, such as abolition of
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serfdom, reorganization of the bureaucracy, and modernization of the education system and
the army.
7) More importantly, Napoleon forced the people to define what it meant to be German.
For ordinary Germans, it amounted to little more than resentment of French rule. But
among the German intellectuals, a great debate began and two distinct attitudes emerged.
i. The 1st group saw Germany as a part of the Western world and wished to retain
French culture. Its ardent supporter was Goethe. He admired Napoleon and showed
little interest in the unification of Germany. Instead he argued that the division of
Germany would help maintain her cultural diversity.
ii. The second group saw German nationalism as an attack on the ‘corrupt and
decadent’ French culture. Importance was given to local institutions, native customs,
traditional culture and national language. This is seen in the views of Arndt and
Friedrich Jahn. Jahn argued that the German volk (people) were culturally and
spiritually superior to the artificial society of the French.
8) At a more popular level, German nationalism was further aroused by the Prussian victory
at Leipzig in 1813. But its role has been greatly exaggerated – the rural mass, almost 80%
of the population, was not involved in the struggle against the French at all. However, it
gave an indirect boost to the creation of a German national myth.
VI. CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1815)
v The Congress of Vienna was held in 1815, after Napoleon’s defeat.
1) A German Confederation (Deutscher Bund) was set up under the presidency of Austria,
which was a loose conglomeration of the now 39 German states. Its main body was the
Federal Diet (Bundestag), composed of envoys chosen by the rulers of the member states.
In effect, however, it was a redundant organization and continued to depend upon
cooperation between Austria and Prussia.
2) Prussia was given the Rhineland.
VII. METTERNICH ERA (1815-1848)
v In the following period, a conservative reactionary system emerged all over Europe under
the influence of the Austrian Chancellor Metternich. Nationalist movements were
repressed. The liberal demands of most nationalists, such as the granting of constitutions
and parliaments, further alarmed the Old Order.
1. Development of Nationalism – Role of Societies, Festivals etc.
v After 1815, nationalism was kept alive in the universities by professors and students, who
formed the student organization Burschenschaften in the cause of national unity.
v A number of other societies were also formed, e.g. the gymnastics movement, the choral
society, the first pan-German academic congresses etc., which fanned nationalistic
sentiment.
v Public festivals were also organized on a large scale with the intention of boosting national
fervour among people. In 1817, student organizations gathered for the ‘Wartburg festival’
and reactionary books were burnt. On a much larger scale was the festival in Hambach in
May 1832.
v The period was also the heyday of national monuments, e.g. the Hall of Liberation near
Kelheim on the Rhine.
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2. Repression by Metternich
v In 1819, Karl Sand, a student, assassinated a reactionary writer. Metternich used this as a
pretext to make the Confederation issue the Karlsbad Decrees. Press censorship was
rigidly introduced, universities were put under supervision and the Burschenschaften was
dissolved.
3. Increasing Importance of Prussia
v At the same time, Prussia began to rise in importance as industrialization began.
v Two developments worked in favour of Prussia’s advance –
i. The philosophy of Hegel, who argued that the Prussian state was the culmination of
the historic process. This made the advance of Prussia appear as something inevitable.
ii. The Zollverein (German Customs Union), comprising 17 states excluding Austria and
Bohemia, was formed in 1834. Customs barriers of member states were leveled and a
uniform tariff was instituted against non-members. This economically hurt the
Austrians and gave Prussia a new role of economic leadership and domination in
Germany.
v The development of railways was also important as it removed the natural impediments
to German integration and fostered economic development.
VIII. 1848 – IMPACT OF THE FAILURE OF REVOLUTION
v As in the rest of Europe, liberal and nationalist insurrections directed against the existing
political order broke out in Germany in 1848.
1) They achieved initial success and as a consequence, the German National Assembly met
at Frankfurt to draw up a national German constitution.
Ø Its delegates were mostly professors, lawyers, businessmen, civil servants and the
clergy.
Ø It was deeply divided over the question of the frontiers of the new German
state. Two conflicting programmes soon emerged.
i. The first was the idea of a ‘Greater Germany’ (Grossdeutsch), which
would include Austria, Bohemia and Moravia but leave out Hungary. They
were impatient at any separatist Slav nationalisms – German was seen as
the master race and other “un-historic” races were inferior races, with no
right to self-determination.
ii. The other alternative was the idea of a ‘Little Germany’ (Kleindeutsch),
which excluded Austria completely and looked at Prussia for leadership.
Ø Eventually the majority voted for the Kleindeutsch solution and they offered the
crown to the Prussian monarch. But he refused on the grounds that he would
accept the crown only from the princes and not from an elected body. The Assembly
disbanded in 1849.
2) By the beginning of 1849, the revolution was over. It failed, among other reasons, due to the
lack of central leadership, lack of unity of purpose and the threat of the big powers. Also, it
was led by intellectuals, not “men of action”.
Ø It resulted in a return of the monarchical order in a more absolutist form.
Ø Its failure also discredited liberal ideas. Romantic idealism was replaced by a more
materialistic and realistic spirit as nationalists came to believe that what liberalism
and democracy failed to give them might be got by more militaristic means.
3) After 1848, Prussia took a definite advantage over Austria. Austria was engaged in war
to protect its dominions in Italy (Piedmont) as well as Hungary and thus had neither
force nor policy to spare for the affairs of Germany.
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IX. 1850s – FACTORS THAT PROMOTE UNIFICATION
1. Favourable international situation
i. Napoleon III, who came to power in France, wanted to redraw the map of Europe in
order to reclaim lost French pride. For this, he was willing to foster limited
nationalism in Italy and Germany.
ii. The Crimean War shattered the Holy Alliance.
iii. Austria had adopted a policy of neutrality and instead of aiding Russia, had sided with
England and France. This left her virtually isolated at the end of the war.
2. Nationalverein
v The Nationalverein of 1859 drew liberal aristocrats, professionals, intellectuals and a few
industrialists as its members. It sought to unite liberals and democrats into a national
movement behind Prussian leadership. But its membership never exceeded 25000 and it
lacked official support.
3. Economic Unification
v This period saw rapid economic development. Heavy industries developed and the
Zollverein knitted German trade more closely together, while still excluding Austria.
v This rapid expansion of the economy united Germany economically, and partially
culturally, before 1871. This led John M. Keynes to comment, with some justification, that
“The German Empire was created more by coal and iron than by blood and iron”.
v The favourable economic situation made it easier for Bismarck to separate nationalism
from liberalism.
v However this alone was not sufficient. German unity was now brought about by a
sequence of diplomatic maneuvers and wars, in which Bismarck played a major role.
X. ROLE OF BISMARCK
v The question arises as to what extent was Bismarck responsible for German unification.
This cannot be understood without a look at the events 1860-71.
1. Introduction
v Bismarck came from the Junker class, who were deeply conservative. But he also had a
degree of cosmopolitanism as his mother was of an upper middle-class origin.
v He occupied a number of official posts before he became the President of the Prussian
Ministry in 1862.
2. ‘Blood & Iron’ – His Thinking
v Bismarck remained a conservative from the beginning to the end. But 1848 marked a
change in his thinking. Thereafter he became isolated from his class, which could no
longer understand his actions. He realized that the age of mass politics had arrived and
thus he tried to preserve the existing monarchy, yet base it on some kind of popular vote by
introducing universal suffrage. He also opposed socialism. In order to avoid a revolution, he
attempted a compromise and even introduced social welfare legislation like food insurance,
accident insurance etc.
v Bismarck was an exponent of Realpolitik – the view that state policy was divorced from
moral considerations and was dictated only by the necessities of power. This comes out in
his famous speech to the Prussian Diet in 1862 where he said that unification would be
achieved “by blood and iron”.
v His pragmatism comes out most clearly in his foreign policy. Unlike typical Junkers,
Bismarck laid out a foreign policy that was not ideologically but politically motivated.
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He attacked the idea of ideological solidarity with Austria and pointed out that since new
opportunities were opening in Europe, Prussia must take advantage of them and be open to
new alliances. His flexible approach and diplomatic skills were amply displayed during
the 3 wars that resulted in the unification of Germany in 1871. However it must be added
that a large part of his success was due to favourable international situation that emerged
in this period.
XI. WARS OF UNIFICATION
1. War with Denmark (1863)
v The first war was fought with Denmark over the issue of Schleswig and Holstein in 1863.
Prussia and Austria cooperated in liberating them. However they did not integrate the two
duchies into the German Confederation. Instead Austria took over Holstein and Prussia
Schleswig.
2. War with Austria (1866)
v This was followed by an escalation of tensions between Austria and Prussia. The result
was a political division, with Austria and Prussia now fighting for dominance of the
Germanic states. Bismarck might have preferred to gain his ends without war, but he came
to regard war as indispensable.
v Simultaneously, Bismarck began to use international diplomacy to secure the neutrality
of the big powers.
Ø His negotiations with France in 1865 and vague hints of territorial gain kept Napoleon
III favourably disposed towards Prussia.
Ø His support for Russia over the Polish Revolt (1863) won the gratitude of Alexander II.
Ø Bismarck’s masterstroke was the Italian alliance of 1866. This left Austria
diplomatically isolated.
v In June 1866, war broke out between Prussia and Austria. The Prussians emerged
victorious and Bismarck imposed mild peace treaties on Austria and the South German
states, to keep them as future allies.
v Prussia, however, annexed all of the states north of the Main River to form the North
German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund) in 1867. This was headed by the Prussian
king.
v Austria was now expelled from the organization of Germany.
3. War with France (1870)
v The next step for unification was to include Southern Germany in the North German
Confederation, which traditionally looked to France for leadership.
v There is a controversy about whether Bismarck had planned the war with France or
whether he was pushed into it by a rising national sentiment against a traditional enemy.
v In August 1870, Prussia went to war with France over the question of succession to the
Spanish throne. The French armies were defeated and the southern states were united
with the North German Confederation. They also had to cede Alsace and Lorraine.
v The German princes were induced by Bismarck to offer the crown to William I and
on January 18, 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed in the Palace of Versailles.
XII. CONCLUSION
1) It can be said that German unification was an inevitable consequence of trend of European
history. However there is nothing inevitable in the particular form that it took; Bismarck’s
role must be recognized. But the sequence of events was not one coherent plan conceived
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in the mastermind of Bismarck. Instead, in an age of uncertainty, Bismarck was merely a
political realist and a brilliant opportunist. Moreover, his success must also be seen in
context of the favourable international situation in Europe during the 1860s.
2) Bismarck used the national movement as and when it suited his purpose. Hagen Schulze,
however, says that public opinion was powerful enough for to influence the course of
events. E.g. It is doubtful that Bismarck’s real aim was to achieve a unified Germany; it was
imposed on him by the national movement. His only interest was to increase the power
of Prussia, and within Prussia his own power; and this he did by presenting himself,
on one hand to the nationalists as one who had the diplomatic expertise to
manipulate the international scene to achieve unification, and on the other hand to
the Great Powers as the only one could defend Germany against the national
movement in the interest of the Old Order.
3) Lastly, it can also be said that Bismarck’s state was not a ‘historical necessity’. Several
other possible alternatives to it had existed, such as the idea of a Greater Germany. Postunification,
many felt that what had been created was not a unified Germany but a
Greater Prussia. Also, the question of ‘German identity’ continued to be debated
beyond 1871, and found its worst and most fatal extension in Hitler.