Temples of the South India
The Pallavas and the Early Western Calukyas

The land between the Krishna and the Kaveri region, known as the Dravidian has stood for an art form in itself from the time of the emergence of the Hindu cults. As Adam Hardy mentions the Dravidian should be understood as an architectural language in the sense that they provide a vocabulary, a range of elements and a family of form.The traditional use of stones in the south India ‘as a medium of funerary monuments’ in the megalithic period continued in the medieval for the building of temples. The development of Bhakti played its role in an artistic development and the dedication of the temples to Agamic dieties, Saiva or Vaishnava. The Alvars and the Nayanars stimulated religious thought through the same. We do not come across an institutionalized religion as such in the Sangam Literature, that is, up till the fourth-fifth centuries AD. By the seventh century we see many new reforms, like the creation of the agrarian corporations, the emergence of Brahmana settlements and the rise of temples.

The patronage of these temples, that which is dominated by the Hindu Temples, belongs mainly to the royalties (Rashtrakutas ,Early Western Calukyas, Pallavas , Holysalas and Cholas), political chiefs, landlords of all varieties and trading groups. Temple was an institution whose potential was realized by the monarchs of South India as early as the period of its origin of monarchical states. The temple reciprocated an ideological hegemony and the society accepted it. The political use of religion in the first place included the use of symbols for purposes of political mobilisation and then as metaphors of power.

Terms like Devadanam (gift of God), Brahmadeyam(a gift to the Brahmins) were used to denote the land grants. They received these lands and alongside established themselves as a considerable force in society and economy. According to Kesavan Veluthat this proliferation of brahmana settlement and the rise of temples can be seen as a veritable revolution in South India during the age of Pallavas.

The temples were an important player in the social developments of the early medieval southern society. It served as an agency for the extraction of surplus. The consolidation of tribal land and the expansion of Agriculture resulted in the disintegration of tribal society and its reorganisation into a caste society. The Brahmana Varnashrama ideology strengthened its grip. Meanwhile the temple became a storehouse of precious metals and a place of gathering for the elite.Alongside,the presence of Guilds in the early south India is important and they operated mainly near the capital cities like Madurai and Kanchi. The merchant guilds connected with the benefactions of the monks living in the natural caverns showed interest in the work of temple art. The stone mason was in fact the presiding sthapati of the temple and was honoured by reference in several contents. Each region had its own outstanding master mason such as Kevadaperuntachchan in the vicinity of Mahabalipuram, Brshmanaraya of Thanjavur etc. Trade guilds also influenced the rulers. The outstanding guilds were Ayyovali, Manigrama and chitrameli. Art was clearly a part of such an idyllic situation of plain living and high thinking by the royal and the lay. Architectural evidence corroborates the application of square, octagon and circle, the root of ternary division in the south. An occupation associated with the temple building was considered a worthy preoccupation of the civilized citizen of the city, town and even village.

Having talked about the society in large scale this essay will now draw strictly on the lines of the Early Western Calukyas and the Pallavas to understand the temple architecture and the architectural influences, while looking at the system of patronage and the political scenario of the region, which affected it.

One of the major dynasties of the Deccan which thrived from 6th to 8th century was that of the Early Calukyas. Also called as the Early Western Calukyas, they became distinct from their Eastern counterparts of Vengi in 624 AD following the death of Pulakesi II. This dynasty, founded by Pulakesi I in 543 AD, was one of the immediate successors to the Gupta empire in the Vindhya- Tamilakam region. It covered many territories of modern day Karnataka, and had its political and religious capitals at Vatapi( later called as Badami), Aihole and Pattadakal.

There have been many on-going debates regarding the place of origin of the Early western Calukyas , with historians like D.R. Bhandarkar and Dr. A.R. Hoernle claiming them to be one of the ruling clans of the gurjaras( gujjars), belonging to modern day Gujarat region. However, this claim is not endorsed by several historians including Dr. V.A. Smith, who considers Calukyas native to the region where they ruled. Nevertheless, the significant contribution of the Early Calukyas in the field of Dravidian temple architecture cannot be debated. They combined artistic innovation with the architectural influences from the Gupta and Northern Indian styles to create simplistic yet spectacular temples with strong aesthetic values. The Calukya school of temple architecture is also referred to as the ‘Karnata-Dravida’ style( Vesara being the term used formerly for this style).

The Early Calukyan temples, belonging to the school of early Dravidian temple architecture, does not boast of lofty gopurams or the great heights, the characteristics almost synonymous to the temples of the south, but had many features unique to them. Most of them are created of large blocks of stone, assembled without using any mortar (Meguti Jaina temple). In architectural proportions, these temples emphasized more on the length from front to rear. The flat roof over the multi pillared halls is also a feature typical of the Calukyan temples. Since the Calukyas preceded the Guptas, therefore, comparison with the great Guptan art tradition is inevitable. Although many sculptural traditions are inspired by the Gupta art, but Calukyan style was quintessentially known for naturalistic and logical portrayal of the sculpted figures, like the full bosomed portrayal of goddess durga in Durga Temple,Aihole. Features like highly elaborate doorways, pilastered walls, toranas, multiple side figures and large southern style dwarapalas (most prominent example being the ones at Virupaksha temple) were unique to the Calukyan architecture, which later became the typical features of Dravidian temples.

Vedic, Buddhism and Jaina- all the three popular religious traditions of the times were revered in the Calukya society, which is aptly reflected in its temple architecture. The Calukyan temple architecture, like that of the Pallavas, also evolved in three overlapping phases-the Cave temples of the late 6th century; early shrine-temples at Aihole of mid 7th century; and the structural temples of Pattadakal dating back to the period of late7th-early 8th century. The first phase, the cave temples, include the rock cut caves belonginig to all the three above mentioned traditions, with a prominent example being the 3 cave temples at Aihole built in the late 6th century. The four vaishnava temples at Badami belonging to the same phase shows the growing popularity of the Vaishnavas and the Saiva cults,as discussed earlier in the essay.

Mid 7th century onwards, the vimana style of the four walled temple came into being. The influences from north Indian style of architecture also became evident from this period. The three most celebrated temple belonging to this phase are the Durga temple, Meguti Jaina temple and the Lad Khan temple at Aihole, both having different architectural styles, influences and physical layouts, which perhaps best explain the versatility of temples architecture of the Calukyas. The Durga temple(Durga as in fort, not Durgaa the goddess), constructed in the late 7th or early 8th century. It stands as a perfect example of Dravidian style of architecture intermixed with northern and Buddhist influences. Its built on a model of a Buddhist caitya. Standing on a high apsidal platform (upapitha) , the four walled shrine is surmounted by a northern styled shikhara( spire), which, according to Susan Huntington, was a later addition. The pillars in its interiors are square shaped which are decorated only at the base. It has a number of sculptures including both saiva and vaisnavite deities, and the famous figure of mahisamardini Durga as well. However, adding the Calukya’s touch of uniqueness are the naturalistic human like sculptures and the stunted appearance of temple’s cast side, as opposed to the towering gopurams of later period which made the temple visible even from a distance.

Another temple from this phase which, as stated by Louis Frederic, can be easily passed off as being a Gupta temple at first sight due to heavy influences from architectural traditions pertaining to this dynasty, is the Meguti Jaina temple situated at Aihole. It is dated back to 634 A.D. The simple walls without figurative sculptures, and the closed circumambulatory passage (sandhara type) are in a stark contrast with the beautifully sculpted nirandhara type Calukyan temples. However, the Calukyan style is evidently visible from the use of large stones and pilastered walls. Apart from the architectural tradition, this temple also provides an insight into the system of patronage prevalent in the late ancient south Indian societies- it being the only(?) significant jaina temple in the plethora of Vedic Calukyan temples of this phase. And, the fact that it was never completed may well point towards the changing religious patterns of the time (waning of the jaina influence in society as well as in receiving patronage, and spread of Vedic Hinduism).

The third phase of the Calukyan temple architecture( late 7th-late 8th century) was that of elaborately carved structural temples, like the Virupaksha temple and Sangameshwara temple of Pattadakal, and the Nava Brahma temple complex at Alampur.

Built during the reign of Vikramaditya II by his queen Loka Mahadevi, the lavishly sculpted Virupaksha temple dedicated to lord Siva Lokeswara is a Calukyan masterpiece intermixed with varied architectural influences- while the presence of front porches indicate that the northern influence persists in this phase as well; the Pallavan architectural influence, including the slender sculptural style and style of costumes, is a result of the Pallava invasion of 642 A.D. Also, it is often claimed that Virupaksha temple is modelled after Rajasimheshwara temple of Kanchipuram. However, this resemblance, according to Huntington, is actually the logical outgrowth (instead of being a mere imitation) of the common architectural forms that were developing within and around the Calukyan territories during this period. The sprawling Virupaksha temple complex contain a high eastern gopuram, a shrine dedicated to Nandi bull, the large pillared mandapa, the vimana consisting of an antechamber and the main shrine (garbhagriha) with sandhara( closed) circumambulatory passage.

Another masterpiece of the Calukyan architecture has been the Nava Brahma Temple complex of Alampur, which was constructed by the Badami Calukyas. It includes nine temples- Taraka Brahma, Swarga Brahma, Padma Brahma, Bala Brahma, Garuda Brahma, Kumara Brahma, Arka Brahma, Vira Brahma and the Vishwa Brahma. These temples are all enclosed in a courtyard on the left bank of the river Tungabhadra. Here again, the temple nomenclature proves to be confusing; the brahma here means the divine universe, and not the Vedic deity of creation, Brahmaa, whose worship has been commonplace in southern India. All these nine temples are dedicated to Siva. These are the highly ornate temples. All but one of these temples have been constructed in the northern style. The most spectacular of these, the Svarga Brahma temple has a beautiful Northern style shikhara (spire). The beautifully carved dikpalas (regents of directions) and the softly modelled mithuna couples on the exterior walls of main shrine are straightaway lifted from the Gupta and post-Gupta style of architecture.

Undoubtedly, the Calukyan temples stand as a perfect example of several, especially Northern style architectural influences, yet exuding unique architectural features, like life size dwarapalas and detached shrines of ‘subordinate’ deities, which later came to be prominently associated with the Dravidian style of temple architecture.

Pallavas who were seemingly operating in certain parts of Nellore and Guntur districts of Andhra Pradesh widened the scope of their political supremacy in several stages and found themselves occupying the throne at Kanchipuram in Tondaimandhalam of Tamil Nadu under Simhavisnu line, in the closing part of the fifth century AD. The Pallava architecture can be broadly divided into 3-rock cut temples, monolithic temples and structural temples. This should be seen as a shift in the emphasis of a progress in technology that is from a simple to a more complex one. Architecture developed during the period from 610AD to 690 AD under the rule of the Mamalla kings and from 690AD to 900AD under the Rajasimha Empire. It is under the reign of Mahendravarman that the Rock cut temples developed. It is known as Vichitra Chitra as no other material was used in its construction. Pallavaram, Mahendravadi,Vallam and Thalavanur are the important temple sites. The monolithic Rathas is included in the Mamalla style and it converted the port of Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) into a beautiful city of art and architecture. The structural temples were built under the reign of Rajasimha and Nandivarman.

The first phase of the temple architecture was influenced by the existing Buddhist monasteries and Chaitya halls. This phase is important because they leave a clue regarding the dependence of the later hindu style on pre-existing Buddhist styles.

We will discuss the temples of the Pallavas with a detailed explanation to the site of Mahabalipuram and Kailashanatha temple .

The rock cut temples of the Mahabalipuram signifies the magnificent feature of the temple architecture of the Pallavas.It was built under the patronage of Narasimhavarma I Mammalla under whose name the site came to be known as Mamallapuram in the beginning. The five Rathas( literally chariot) initially thought out to be his work is now argued to be the work of Rajasimha. The Rathas are named after the Pandava brothers and Draupati individually. Except the Nakula-Sahadeo Ratha which faces south and stands apart with its sides facing the other four rathas,the other four stands in a row facing the west. The Draupadi Ratha has a hut styled vimana-the simplest form with a square base. The Arjuna ratha is a two tired temple with a square section in each tier, an octagonal shaped griva(neck) and sikara (head) .The Karnakutas,a structure kept at four corners above the roof of the first tier and the Salas,a form placed at the centre of four corners, have been introduced in this temple. Another innovation is the lower tier which starting from the base is split vertically with projections at equal intervals. These intervals divide the structure into compartments called ‘Bhadras’ with depression in between. The Bhima Ratha is a single tired structure with a rectangular base and the top portion is oblong like a titled boat similar to a sala Vimana. Another feature of this temple is the Nasikas .The architecture of the Dharmaraja temple is different from the others. It’s the tallest of all and is three tired. The ground floor has pillared entrance and the second and third tiers has garbhagriha and parapet wall with space between them. The Hara has a new component the panjara between karnakutas and the salas. The Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha has a vimana called the ‘Gaja-Prishta Vimana’ because the back portion of the ratha resembles the back of an elephant placed next to the ratha. This two tired Ratha has a shikhara with a miniature replica of vimana projected out.

The structural temples again fall into two categories-the Rajasmha group(c.700-800) and the Nandivarman group(800-900).the former includes the three temples at Mamallapuram(The shore,Isvara and Mukunda temples),one at Panamalai(south Arcoit district)and the temples of Kailashnath and Vaikunthaperumal at Kanchipuram.

The earliest of them is the Shore temple. According to Shastri its excellent workmanship is proved by its having withstood, in a very exposed position, the action of wind and sea and the shifting sands of the shore.

The Kailashnath temple at Kanchipuram was built using sand stone. Shaped like a hilly comb it is the crown of the Pallava architecture. King Rajasimha I of the Pallava dynasty is the chief patron of this monument. His declarations are inscribed in the towered shrine or vimana and in the inner face of the rectangular precinct wall or prakara.The pillared mahamandapa of the temple standing at the prakara opening was built during Rajasimhas lifetime while the hall connecting the mahapandapa and the prakara could be a later addition. Being situated in the capital city the temple was surely of great importance to its patron. It could have been possible that the temple was kept as a personnel shrine of the ruler as no other Pallava king added any inscriptions of their own to the earlier existing ones. The vimana has been a temple dedicated to Lord Shiva. At the centre of the inner chambers of the vimana is a linga and an inscription which reads Rajasimhasvara or Rajasimhas temple to Siva which has made most scholars believe that the whole temple structure has been dedicated to Lord Siva. But according to an article published by Padma Kaimal in the journal of the American Academy of religion, Kailashnath temple is one of the two temples dedicated to both Siva and the Goddess. The prakara articulates the female principle as it protects, enfolds and circumscribes the male principle embodied in the vimana. We can recognize the prakara as a Goddess temple because it shares the defining features of the yogini temples built a few centuries later. And like them it embraces a symbol of Siva in its courtyard as the yoni (vagina) and embraces the linga (phallus)in heterosexual intercourse.

Perhaps the most mature example of Pallava architecture is the Vaikunthaperumal.Slightly larger than the Kailashnath temple,its cloisters,portico and sanctum are amalgamated into a well-articulated structure.

The Nandivarman group of Pallava temples consist of small temples.These are witnesses to the decline of Pallava power.The pallavas thus not only kept the developed traditions but also transmitted them to lands beyond the seas.

Writers argue that the architecture of the Pallavas in Tamil Nadu being situated further south in the subcontinent and being insulated from the northern contacts is the true Dravidian. The eighth century Kailashnatha temple at Kanchipuram(Capital of the pallava kingdom)seen as the direct model for Virupsksa, Pattadakkal. It is said that Vikramaditya I the calukya king admired this temple and had some of its images covered in gold. Further Tamil artisans were taken to Pattadakkal. According to Dahejia and Tartakov this is a mutual sharing that existed between the two kingdoms. Now when the two are compared, emphasis should be given to ‘what’ kind of exchange really existed between the two kingdoms.

Certain features of Pattadakal temples of the Calukyan period are close to the Pallave style; the square upper temple with Kapota -panjara, aedicules in the walls, the miniature vimanas in the nasis, the form of nasis themselves .If these are the result of Pallava influence, the ‘exchange’ must have taken place during the reign of Vijayaditya and had probably not awaited the admiration of his son Vikramaditya II for Kailasnatha temple, Kanchi. The Sangamesvara temple at Pattadakal is the most Pallava.It is the Sangamesvara and not Kailasnatha which is immediate precedent for Virupaksa. No surviving temple is contemporary to the early phase Calukya temple. The 5 Pandava rathas which is the earliest surviving free standing Pallava architecture, seems closer in maturity to the Calukya works at Pattadakal than middle phase Calukya temple. If the Pallava rathas were built in the mid seventh century, earlier than the middle phase Calukya temples, clearly Pallava Dravidian reached maturity before the Calukyas .Now this can again be seen as a shared overall tradition and continuous exchange of ideas. However, the Pallava invasion of the Calukyas in 642 A.D. is an important political event which also led to the cultural interaction between the two.

The main difference in both of them is that while Calukyan exterior are composed of increasingly distinctive aediale units, Pallavas uphold integrity of the walls. Calukyan temples are interconnected through continuous and weakened boundaries while the Pallava has parapet pavilions, the full aedicles and walls that remain discrete in each tier. In short the Karnataka Dravidian is the fission of dynamism while the Tamil Dravidian preserves difference and relative stasis.

Thus, the various temples discussed in the course of the essay reflect upon not only the various architectural traditions and influences prevalent in the southern India during 6th to 8th century A.D., but also give an insight into the socio political and religious patterns that were prominent or were taking shape during that period. Also we find the emergence of a Dravidian style, which is independent of any other contemporary or earlier styles. For, it has been rightly said-“beauty is meant not only to please the eyes, but also to explain what all has gone into making it so pleasing”. The Pallavan and Calukyan temples undoubtedly stand as a testimony to this statement.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

 

  1. Frederic, Louis : Indian Sculpture and Temple
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the Kailashnath Temple at Kanchipuram; Journal of American

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  1. www.asi.nic.in