What led to the voyages of discovery by Spain and Portugal? Analyse the economic basis of Spanish empire.

The factors which led to the voyages undertaken by Spain and Portugal cannot be accredited to just a single reason or motive. It was a number of motives which together ultimately led to the voyages of discovery. Overpopulation, economic stability, new innovations in the field of ship building and astronomy, determination and ambitions of a few individuals and the hope of finding a promised land outside their nations. These were some of the motives given to us by Geoffrey Scammell and J.H. Parry for the voyages of the two nations. In this essay, we shall look at the different reasons given by these historians and some of their flaws. Then we shall look at the colonial and imperial governments of Spain and Portugal and finally deal with their economies, plantations and slave trade.

Land and labour were the principal sources of wealth and the quickest way to achieve them was to seize. So exploiting new lands which were either unoccupied or the people could be easily driven away. Precious commodities were gained through trade and plunder and those areas which had such commodities were plundered on either their basis of religion or their lack of it. The religious zeal was of two types- to convert and to also ensure the safety of one’s own community.

It has been suggested that the continent’s population had reached such a level that it could no longer sustain it. This obviously created the need to look for new lands in order to be able to support the growing population. But Geoffrey Scammell critiques this factor saying that the population level would have been static or declining after the major fall in population during the middle ages. Also there is no evidence to show the search for an urgent need of food. The Portuguese Atlantic islands turned to producing wine and Brazil and the Caribbean islands to sugar. The intention thus, was to meet the needs of the affluent classes. Another reason which has been put forward was that, only by the 1400’s did the European economies reach a level of stability which enabled them to undertake such voyages and to sustain the costs and burdens of these voyages. But as we have seen, the majority of the pioneers were from the relatively backwards economies of Spain and Portugal and so the stability of the economy of the time did not play such an important role in leading to the voyages.

Some have argued that the Turkish advance in the Middle East blocked the westward flow of oriental spices which led to a need to find new sources to get these. But Geoffrey Scammell again points out that when the Portuguese were beginning their voyages, spice imports from the Middle East were rising. One of the main factors given as a cause for the voyages was that, only by this were ships designed to withstand the long and difficult journey. Also there were improvement in navigational techniques and observation of the sun and the stars. But as both Geoffrey Scammell as Ralph Davies points out, these improvements took place as a resulting of the increasing discoveries rather than the other way round. Scammell also points out that by this time, the Portuguese venturers had already crossed and recrossed difficult waters several times in whatever vessels that were available.

Portugal had the enormous advantage of being served by fair winds and from the 13^th century they had a growing interest in gaining direct access to the source of the Nigerian gold available in the Mediterranean markets. For Portugal, because of their peace treaty with Castile, they could only turn south to provide an outlet for pent up energies which would otherwise lead to internal strife. The desire to reach Asia had also been growing and these were reinforced by the geographical works of Ptolemy and other Arabs. It was for china that Columbus had sailed eastward. But there no evidence to show that the discoverers were even aware of such works. Portugal imperialism also sought a back door to attack the Arabs leading to new voyages.

The Europeans, one of their main aims for a long time was conversion of those outside their territory and also seeking out Christian allies in parts yet unknown and creating alliances with them. C.R. Boxer talks about the search for gold and the quest for Prester John. The legends of Prester John told of a Christian patriarch and king said to rule over a nations lost amidst the Muslims and pagans in the orient. There were then the traditions of Christian attacks for dealing the infidels a godly blow or to acquire plunder. Conversion was important as the converts made useful allies, although the aims of the missions were very often entangled with less elevated motives.

J.H. Parry and Geoffrey Scammell talk about the curiosity in the European which led them to undertake the voyages. Parry talks both about scientific and geographical curiosity where they wanted to know what lay beyond the horizon. Scammell also talks about the myths where in the early years of the voyages, there were extensive searches conducted for the unknown marvels in the new world. For example, Cortez searched for the seven cities of Cibola. As one myth faded another rose to take its place.

 A great majority of the people left in order to make profits and earn their fortunes. Gold was almost at the top of the search list of most voyages. Many others, specially the oppressed minorities, left as it provided them a chance to practice their faiths freely and without restriction. The voyages were also an attraction to the abundant class of gentry as it gave them an opportunity to live like the nobility back at home, in the new world. For many others the voyages were an escape, an escape from poverty, escape from creditors, and an escape from hopeless misery. Most societies cherished the hope that there were lands abounding in things and opportunities which were currently being denied to them and this was important in the growth of the empires. Eg. Sexually insatiable women allegedly common in Asia.

Rivalries between European states and the matter of national prestige also contributed to the voyages. Colonial powers attempted to secure what they considered to be vital interests by occupying territories which would otherwise fall into hostile hands. Voyages were also to a great extent inspired by the determination of individuals and the revelations of Spain in America and Portugal in Asia of riches on an unprecedented scale.

Older views gave all the credit to Henry the Navigator a prince of Portugal. For over 40 years he steadily gave his support to the voyages. He greatly encouraged the voyages and placed men of his own household in charge of ships. His reasons for undertaking the voyages were his interests to know what lay beyond the canaries and Cape Bojador and also to open up new profitable trades. He wanted to investigate the extent of Moorish powers and also to convert the pagans to Christianity. There was also the motive to seek out Christian rulers and ally with them. One of his main motives though was to fulfil the predictions of his horoscope, where it was said that he would attempt discoveries which was hidden to other men.

However, many in Europe thought that the voyages brought out the worst in mankind and very often the surplus and undesirable population were dumped overseas. Eg. A bulk of emigrants to Portugal’s African territories was convicts. Also when Cape Bojador which was a psychological barrier, was overcome, the Portuguese were ready to push further into new lands. Most voyages apart from those of the Portuguese were privately undertaken.

When the loot of the conquests were disappointing, Cortez, in order to appease his followers gave them grants of encomienda which was a native village or a group of villages commended to the care of an individual Spaniard. The encomiendores were however not long lived as the mother country did not trust them enough. Most voyages were initially privately financed and so the leaders soon came to own large tracts of land. Conquistadors even as powerful as Cortez were however overthrown and by the end of the reign of Charles V, and most lands came under royal officials and from 1573 whole process of expansion was under the crown.

Viceroyalties were instituted in Peru and Mexico and they enjoyed overall authority and checked colonial ambitions. Viceroys in turn were checked by audiencias. Moreover, officials were encouraged by the crown to report directly to them with regard to any shortcomings. In 1503 a special department, the casa de la contratacion, was created by Spain and all vessels destined for or arriving from the Indies were to be recorded and checked there. The majority of Indians were bound by law to live in fixed communities, pay tribute and discharge labour services and any opposition was brutally crushed. Also to further Spanish ends, inter-tribal rivalries were exploited and indigenous allies employed to control their fellows. The Spanish had also created municipal councils which undermined the authority of the chiefs.

Governors of many outlying areas were independent and functioned in their own ways. Also officials received fees and not salaries and thus many of them turned to fraud and corruption. Some ran enterprises while others simply fleeced the Indians. Both in Portugal and Spain, the imperial church was under the absolute control of the king which gave the crown the authority to decide who were to be allowed on the voyages to the new lands.

Imperial growth in Portugal was similar to that of Spain although in a cruder and slower fashion. Initially the burden of empire was left to those willing to shoulder it, but where profits were assured, the government quickly intervened and created monopolies. The colonies had to very often undertake conquests to impress the local leaders and also to prove their intention of staying. The Portuguese in the east did not make much effort to reorganise the societies and economies, instead adapted them to their needs. The viceroys had no obligation to listen to the views of his compatriots, but it was better if they did as they were the only ones to whom he could turn to in situations of crisis. The rich planters and merchants also possessed a lot of power and wealth and made their views forcefully heard.

A major problem faced by both Spain and Portugal was the delay in communication. Situations changed even while those back at home deliberated on the issue. It took an average 91 days to reach Vera Cruz from Spain. The governors could suspend royal orders while waiting for the crown to consider their appeal for reconsideration. There was thus bitter contention between the mother country and the colonies.

There was a catastrophic decline in the population of the natives in the Americas after the arrival of the Europeans. Antonio de heuera wrote about the extreme susceptibility of the natives to the diseases, especially smallpox. Smallpox was communicated through air by dust particles or droplets. Many die after it and those who survive have marks on them, but then they remain immune for a number of years. The conditions which facilitated one disease often facilitated others as well. Pneumonia and pleurisy followed small pox. It is said that the reason for such a high mortality rate was the brutal treatment of the Indians by the Spanish. Indians were effective carriers of the diseases and it often affected the social structure and leaders of the Indians. A few years before Pizzaro’s invasion, a respiratory disease had consumed the greater part of the Incas. Likewise, Cortez had laid siege to the city after 60 days of epidemic in it. The deaths in ruling classes permitted the Europeans to cultivate the loyalty of men in high positions. Also there were inter-tribal wars regarding succession after the death of the leaders. So epidemic was one of the main methods used by the Spaniards and the Portuguese to establish their colonies.

Moving on to the economy in Spain and Portugal. Throughout the 15^th and 16^th century the Mediterranean trade remained the most important single element in the commercial and maritime life of Western Europe. They built their own ships and carried out their trade and the area as a whole was self supporting. When local supplies were inadequate or unreliable, they were imported in large quantities by ships as land transport was very expensive. Ships were designed to carry bulky cargo and grain was the most important cargo. Also salt, oil, wine and cheese were transported. Spain and Italy imported fish as the Mediterranean supplies never met the demand. Portugal expanded its fishing activities to the Atlantic to meet the demand for fish. Spain also exported wool.

The costs of trade were very high, but the profits were much higher. Portugal and Spain lacked the financial capital whereas northern Italy and southern Germany had large financial houses. Portugal initially did not permit foreign investment and this was allowed only from 1505. As the colonies grew and in size and demand for manufactured goods increased, there was a need for capital. Spain and Portugal thus borrowed capital from its financially advanced neighbours but it soon led to debt traps. So the spices from India and the silver from America flowed through Spain and Portugal into the hands of the German and Italian bankers. The bankers suffered losses during wars but then they extracted maximum privileges from the governments.

The inland trade in America was very primitive and so the Spanish could establish trade networks here and mint huge profits. In 1545, the Spanish first discovered gold in Potosi mines, and silver mines in the mountain ranges of central Mexico. These were mined using Aztec labour first by the encomienda system and later by the government directly. The commercial revolution took place due to expansion of trade and commerce in the Atlantic regions. This in turn led to rise of elaborate organisations and management institutions like banking, ship building etc.

Slave labour was widely used in Africa by the Europeans. These slaves consisted both of the indigenous population as well as the slaves of African origin who were imported there. In the 15^th century, Azures, Madeira and Canaries received slaves from the Portuguese conquest of Africa and they were used in the sugar plantations. Slave trade further advanced in the west with the Spanish voyages of discovery of America. The weak kingdoms in Africa sold slaves to the Portuguese contractors who then sold them to the Spanish and Portuguese crowns. The slaves were used in mining and to a great extent in the plantations. Cotton and tobacco plantation made people in the Low Countries rich. Sugar which was earlier meant for only the elite was now made accessible to all sections of society. The products were then exported to Low Countries and these trades were financed by Italian city-states like Genoa. Now there was conversion from production of luxury goods to producing commodities of mass consumption. With the economic balance shifting from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, there was also a shift in the slave trade. Slave trade as a whole was profitable as it made a good investment for European inhabitants and it made an elastic commodity that could be bought and sold in markets. Usage of slaves led to savings for European traders as the mines and plantations could be worked at very low costs as they had to pay very little salary. African slaves were also used as carriers of diseases and sent to America where the epidemics wiped out entire populations.

So to conclude, both Spain and Portugal were led by a number of motives- religious, economic political as well as social motives. Determination of a few individuals and new technological inventions also contributed to the voyages of discovery. For God, Gold and Glory was the main motive in the minds of most of the early pioneers. We have also seen how the two nations controlled their colonies overseas with the use of a variety of institutions and methods which were specially created for this purpose. Finally, the trade relations and conditions of the economy of Spain during the time were analysed. The debt traps and the imperialist tendencies of those like Charles V had made the Spanish economy weak. Slave trade, plantations and mining also played an important role in the economy of Spain during this period of the voyages. The voyages of discovery led by the Portuguese and the Spanish changed the entire perception of the world, led to new discoveries and on the whole changed the world as they had known it until then.

Bibliography:

• Alfred W. Crosby, The Colombian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492, Greenwood Publishing Group,2003

• Geoffrey Scammell, The First Imperial Age: European Overseas Expansion c.1400-1715, Routledge

• Ralph Davis, The Rise of Atlantic Economies, Cornell University Press

• Michael Adas, Islamic and European Expansion: The Forging of a Global Order, Temple

University Press, 1993

• John Horrace Parry, Age of Reconnaissance, Orion, 2010

• Charles Ralph Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415-1825(Pelican)

-Arpith Thomas Isaac

II History (Hons)