Introduction

2 models of inequality

>class-control over resources division

>caste- social status division

>gender inequalities

All 3 are overlapping. Long slow process of evolution of caste system. Early Buddhist texts- attempts by brahmanas to gain high position based on purity of birth. Eg. In suttapitaka- only brahmanas are pure, best caste, sons of brahma. Varna in Sanskrit means colour. 4 level. 5th level later panchama. Caste- system of grading inequality in ascending scale of reverence and descending scale of contempt. Access to production sector is closed to lower caste. Between the groups eating, physical contact and marriage are kept very ritualistic. Earliest reference for varna, purushasukta- this describes primeval sacrifice of purusha and through this all elements were generated. Mouth Brahmin, arms- kshatriya or rajanya, thighs- vaishya, feet- shudra. The males of the 3 upper castes were dvija- twice born. Vedic initiation – upanayana. 4 varnas and ashramas are the 4 pillars of brahmanicaL ideology (dharmashastra texts). Outside groups wer absorbed into the varna system and they were put in the category of varnasamkaras. Eg. Yavans= kshatruya man + shudra women. Manusmriti refers to them as vratyakshatriyas (khatruyas who were degraded due to their non performance of their sacrificial rituals.) Jati, lineage and occupation continued to be important basis of social identity. The texts mostly talk about the caste hierarchies (Brahmans at the top and the chandalas at the bottom)

Brahmanical patriarchy

Brahmanical patriarchy is a complex formation of social status, economic, social reproduction. It is a structure unique to brahmanic Hinduism. Women are crucial in maintaining boundaries between caste. Brahmanical chords are different depending upon the status of caste group and most stringent control was for higher caste women. In Manusmriti we read that women are redisposed in violating rules. 8 forms of marriage

>brahma, daiva, arsha, prajavatya, asura, gandharva, rakshasa, paisaja. Brahma was the preferred form of marriage .

The 4 fold order of varnas was central to the discourse of the brahmanical tradition. The varnas were ideally supposed to be endogamous (marriage within the group). Hypogamous marriage(anuloma)- marriage between man of higher caste and women of lower caste. Pratiloma- marriage between man of lower caste and women of higher. Worst sort of pratiloma union was between Brahmin women and shudra man. The ideal activities of a brahmana was studying and teaching Veda, performing sacrifices for himself and others, giving and receiving gifts. Those of Kshatriya are studying, bestowing gifts, conducting sacrifices for himself and more specially protecting people. Vaishyas shares the 1st 3 activities but his ideal occupations are agrigulture, cattle-rearing, trade and money lending. The shudra was supposed to obtain his livelihood by serving the higher varnas. The emergence of jatis may have been the result of a combination of factors, the hereditary nature of craft and occupation, assimilation of tribal groups into brahmanical fold and a social system that privileged birth and hierarchy through marriage roots and endogamy. Pali texts refer to high jatis(ukkatta jatis) and low jatis (hina). Brahmans and kshatriyas included among the former. The latter included hunters. Chariotters and sweepers. In early dharmashashthra texts chandalas were sometimes categorized as shudras. If a higher jati man touches, sees or talks to a chandala then he has to immediately engage in certain purification activities.

women

diff texts have contradictory statements about women. Manusmriti praises and reviles women. Men have to guard their wives and women as described as lustful, fickle, hard-hearted, untrustworthy. On the other hand where the discussion is about how men should respect women the latter are described as bearers of many blessings. Manusmriti emphasizes the husbands control over wife and property but she can’t be sold and treated as chattel. Dharmashstra- women withdraw from public life, diminished access to knowledge and they are dependent on males. preference for sons. Vijayanath examined the changing relationship between women and property in brahmanical texts where by the time of the rig Veda to 5th,6th centuries they were treated as items of property or equal to shudras. Women’s right to inherit property with regard to stridana from 2nd century. Manusmriti- 6 types of gifts in stridana.

Vijayanath expands her argument that women’s right to inherit immovable property acknowledged and expanded in the later centuries and this was to keep maintain the families control over property and to prevent it from being taken over by the state. Manusmriti- a dvija male must marry a woman from his own varna. Earlier dharmasutras tell that women should be married on attaining puberty, later texts advocate pre-puberty marriages. Manusmriti prefers marriages within the varna but acknowledges inter Varna and anuloma unions. Pratiloma marriages were considered to lead to chaos and ruin. Manusmriti- the husbands can abandon their wives if the wife is notorious, affected with disease, treacherous etc. on the other hand a sick but virtuous wife shouldn’t be abandoned. For women lifelong monogamy is presented as the ideal. Manusmriti disapproves widow remarriage. On her husband’s death if a virtuous women abides by the rule of celibacy she goes to heaven even if she is sonless. Manusmriti- “niyoga”, if a husband dies without a son his younger brother should marry the wife and unite with her till a son is produced and the son born out of niyoga union is called as kshetraja. Different texts such as palijatakas deal with different occupations of women. Inscriptions mention about royal as well as non royal women.

UMA CHAKRAVARTI

The purity of women has a centrality in brahmanical patriarchy as we shall see coz caste purity is dependent upon it. The honor and respectability of men are protected and preserved through their women. The ideologies of caste system had a particular horror- hypogamy- pratiloma(against the grain). The gita outlines the collapse of social and moral order when there are leakages in the closed structure of marriages( when women are corrupted all is lost.) . Women’s cooperation in the system was secured by various means-ideologies, economic dependency on the male head of the family, class privileges and also force was used when required. The existence of numerous mother goddess icons and the bronze statue of a dancing girl could be interpreted as the continuous importance of women’s special relationship with reproduction and may also be seen as acceptance of their sexuality.

The 1st large group to be enslaved in the early Indian history were women(dasis and dasas). References to dasis as objects of dana( recipients are always men). Degree of tension between men and women may be discerned even in rig vedic literature. Shatapata brahmana states that ‘Raja’ varuna seizes the woman who has adulterous intercourse with men other than her husband. Apstamba dharmasutra- wives in particular required to be under male control, husbands should ensure that no other man should go near her lest his seed get into her.

Innate nature of women was represented as sinful at a general level. Women are the edge of a razor. Shatapata brahmana states that- a women, a shudra, a dog and a crow are the embosiments of untruth, sin and darkness. Women are a sex composed of wickedness and guile, womenkind hold truth for falsehood and vice versa(jatakas). Ramayana, kaushalya says that women do not care for a good family, good deeds or wisdom and their hearts are inconsistent. Mahabharata states that the cunning tricks of demons are known to be unique to women.

Duties of women according to manu- the production of children, nurturing, daily life of men, faithful service and heavenly bliss for ancestors and oneself.

Widowhood

Widow is socially dead. She remains an element in society. A woman is recognized as a person when she is incorporated into her husband, only then does she become a social entity(sumangaly). The goal of the life of a woman is to get married and procreate sons. Like the married menstruating girl, the wife whose husband is absent is an object of panic. The face of the wife whose husband is away should look pale and distressed. Widowhood is solely attributed to the purvakarma for a sinful existence in the past. More important the loss of a wife’s virtue causes her husband to fall down from heaven to hell. Unbound hair appears frequently in the Mahabharata.