Dias Mario Antony
B.A (Hons.) History-III
History of Modern Europe Assignment
- What were the social and ideological factors behind the recurrence of revolutions across Europe, between 1820 and 1848? Why did this tide ebb after 1850?
Ans: The years from 1820 to 1848 were a tumultuous and decisive era in the history of Modern Europe. It was a period of recurring revolutions across Europe. The rising Bourgeoisie class challenged the old monarchical Reactionaries with their Liberal ideology. Ideologies such as Radicalism, Republicanism, and Socialism began to make a foray. The worker consciousness of a class struggle between the Proletariat and Bourgeoisie also began to emerge. There is an understanding that the revolutions were born from a conjunction of crucial economic, political and socio-cultural alterations in the first half of the nineteenth century. We will however be examining only the social and ideological factors in this answer and the reasons to why the tide of revolution stated ebbing after 1850.
Before we go into the social and ideological factors it would be intelligent to briefly look at the immediate background to the period which we are looking at. At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, after Napoleons era, European leaders worked out strategies to reorganize Europe and create a stable balance of power. The Austrian diplomat Metternich would call several more gatherings to try and preserve the European stability, but this wish for stability would remain futile as Europe would never remain the very same as there were a lot of dynamic forces working across Europe at the time.
In Great Britain for instance, the industrial revolution brought in wealth to the entrepreneurs and manufacturers and created a Bourgeois class. Consequently there was a greater desire for power among the Bourgeois and they developed a liberal ideology involving the idea of a free market. The middle class in Germany and Italy also desired to unify states and believed that the government should take the initiative to do so. In many countries this desired pace was not achieved, and the rulers did not share the same philosophy, which made them demand a share in the power held by the government. It was not surprising how such a situation laid the ground for a conflict.
Thus, the years from 1815 to 1848 can be seen as a more subtle battle between conflicting worldviews. On one hand we have the powerful members of the old regime, who opposed changes of any kind and on the other hand we have the forces of change – the bourgeois, liberals, socialists, radicals, romantics and the nationalists. The struggle started in the form of small-scale revolutions in 1830 and gained full momentum by 1848, the year of the revolutions.
At the most basic level, the changes attempted by the French Revolution of 1789 had set a new model of state. The form of governmental organization, political participation, production and property relations were all redefined. Religion took a back seat in the society and the change involved the replacement of an old regime with a civil society of property owners. These revolutionary ideas from France spread across the European society by this time and increased the antagonism and discontent of the people towards the rulers. This combined with bad harvests, economic depression and food riots amplified the discontent and anger in the European society. Unemployment also reached high figures. However, it was not just a lack of food but also the poor governance which was also a factor that caused unhappiness for many.
There was a large sense of nationalism which was created during the period by foreign rule and hopes of unification. Italy was one such place which was divided into various kingdoms such as Sicily, Piedmont etc. The Sicilian Uprising in February 1848 was one of the first moves towards a united Italy. The people who vouched for uniting their nations saw this as a chance and similar uprisings took place in other cities such as Milan also.
In Hungary the reasons were different. The Hungarians were generally unhappy with the Austrian rule and took to the streets demanding autonomy in 1848. In Germany too such hopes prevailed. David Thomson writes, “The central revolutionary impulse was one of nationalism- for the overthrow of Austrian domination and of the princely sovereignties which served that domination, and for the unification of German territories into one state”. As we can see the hate of foreign rule and hopes of unification which manifested in the form of nationalism was a major force behind the Revolutions of 1848.
Let us now analyze the ideological factors that were responsible for the upheavals in early decades of 19th century. According to Sperber one single most important factor which shaped the ideology of the 19th century was the ideas and legacy of the French revolution of 1789. There was a large wave of liberalism which hit the shores of Europe during the period and was a cause of major unrest. The French people who had been repressed by their rulers for many years were probably among the first to imbibe this idea. Universal suffrage was still elusive in France and many felt excluded by this. This probably was one of the most important ideological and political factors behind the revolution since after the Paris Revolution we see that the universal male suffrage was installed. The repressive nature of the French government and their arbitrary decision to curb free speech was the major cause of the Paris Revolution.
Things were not much different in Austria. The Carlsbad Decrees of 1819 brought out by Metternich and the repressive system followed by him was despised by the masses. The people having inspired by the success of the Paris Revolution started in revolt, eventually Metternich being forced to resign. The Vienna Legal/Political Reading Club also came out with constitutional proposal, which included religious toleration, the right to petition, and the abolition of censorship. These proposals show that the people of Vienna wanted liberal change.
Similar petitions for change were made in the Germanic states also. The people of Mannheim for instance made out a petition demanding trial by jury and freedom of press amongst other things. Similar petitions were made in Cologne and Mainz also. Some of them even suggested more extended franchise, religious toleration, free speech, swearing of an oath to the constitution by the armed forces etc. All these shouted out the people’s urgency for change and then when they were denied they resorted to revolution. These tides of liberalism swept through other countries such and Spain and Hungary too.
A young intellectual movement called Romanticism meanwhile found grip in Germany, Britain and to an extent France. It challenged the ideal of universal standards for all mankind, and led to the glorification of the unique “national genius” of each ethnic and linguistic group.
Another ideology which was of high importance was the doctrine of socialism which came up with the rise of the working classes. Socialist ideas had their roots in the thoughts of Rousseau and from extreme Jacobinism during the French revolution. The trickling of these ideas was in response to the growing contradiction between the increasingly poor majority and increasingly wealthy minority. There was a concentration of capital which was taking place in the hands of a few elite. Socialist voices demanded the rational organization of the society in the form of an intellectual movement.
Much of the tension leading up to the 1848 revolution can be understood as involving the interaction between the new political ideas which ultimately stemmed from French Revolution and the social structure and social conflicts which were present in the early decades of the 19th century. However, this tide of recurring revolutions ebbed after 1850. The reasons were many.
There was a general lack of coordination and organization between the revolutions which were happening in various parts of Europe. For instance, the revolts in Prague, Vienna, and Budapest maintained no coordination between them allowing the Austrian army to easily suppress them. The return of the conservative and reactionary forces can be attributed to the middle class to a certain extent. The fear of radicalism of the workers by the middle class had prevented any lasting alliance. Thus when the radicals took control of the revolutions in Paris and Eastern Europe, no support came in from the middle class liberals. They preferred absolute rule and law and order, to the uncertainty of radical revolution. In contrast to this we find the rulers of different states cooperating with each other when it came to quelling the revolution. The spirit of active cooperation among the rulers of the different countries of Europe was instrumental in frustrating the revolutions.
Although the tide of the Revolution reached the frontiers of almost every state in Europe their excitement did not last long due to absence of able and talented leadership. There was no universal leader who could boast of undisputed quality. Thus, owing to the lack of an able and undisputed leader, the movements could not be properly organized and planned thereby getting mercilessly curbed by the autocratic powers.
Another reason that several historians mention is the limited reach of the revolts. David Thomson has remarked that the origin, birth and inspiration of the Revolution of 1848 were the gift of the urban areas. This revolution originated only in the cities of Europe. To the common people living the villages the revolution did not mean much and were also ignorant of many its facets according to him. Their faith was entrenched in the old traditions, customs and political systems thereby limiting the scope of the revolution to just the urban areas and failing to enlist the sympathy, support and cooperation of the common people of the rural areas. The revolution failed in the cities too due to the rising conflict between the labour class and the middle class.
Thus, it may be concluded that the disunity of the revolutionists, the spirit of cooperation among the rulers, indifferent leadership and the limited scope of the revolution were the main reasons for the tide of revolution ebbing after 1850.
Bibliography
- Barker, Stephen, A Companion to 19th century Europe, Blackwell companion series.
2. Lyons, Martyn, Post-revolutionary Europe, 1815-1856.
3. Sperber, Jonathan, The European Revolutions, 1848-1851.
4. Thompson, David, Europe since Napoleon.
5. Waller, Bruce, Themes in modern European history, 1830-90.