ROMAN PRINCIPATE – Social Formations – History DU Notes

ROMAN PRINCIPATE

The idea of Roman principate came into being only at the time of Augustus Caesar. It was the coming of the principate that led to the end of republic in Rome. Soon after the assassination of Caesar and destruction of first triumvirate, the Second Civil War (44-42 BCE) broke out with Caesar’s trusted lieutenant Marc Antony and his grandnephew Octavian forming an alliance with M. Aemilius Lepidus. These three formed the Second Triumvirate to combat the armies of the conspirators. The civil war ended with the battle of Phillipi in 42 BC. The ‘last republican leaders’, Cassius and Brutus both committed suicide after this defeat and many other young Roman aristocrats were slain. Octavian returned to Italy while Antony stayed back in the east. The Roman World was thus divided among the triumvirs –Octavian getting Italy, Spain and Gaul while Antony received the eastern provinces and Lepidus held Africa.

However cracks erupted and Lepidus was exiled and war broke out between Antony and Octavian, leading to the Third Civil War. Octavian was assisted by his trusted General Marcus Vispanius Agrippa and Diplomat Gaius Maecenas. Antony was helped by his mistress, Cleopatra VII, the Queen of Egypt. The two forces met in the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. Antony was defeated decisively and fled to Egypt with Cleopatra VII where they both committed suicide, thus paving the way for Octavian supremacy, hereafter until his death Octavian retained all the powers of state. The year 27 BCE, marks the start of Octavian Rule with the Senate honouring him with the title of “Augustus”, which held religious connotations indicative of his all powerful status. Thereafter he is referred to as Augustus Caesar (27 BCE-17 CE). He began an extensive series of reform in all spheres of Roman Life. This effectively ended the Roman Republic and started a new era in Roman Polity called the “Principate” or the early Roman Empire.

Augustus’ situation was precarious in the empire ravaged by incessant warfare which had drained the treasury. He had to restore the confidence and order in a shattered world. It was therefore essential that the political life and organization of empire be stabilized. The people were longing for peace. The roman world was ready to support the man who would bring peace and stability. When he started reorganizing government machinery he proved himself as one of the most gifted administrators which world was ever seen. He got a special position in history due to his great achievement in restoring the peace and order in Rome and its areas. This was the period of Pax Romana— the Roman Peace.

Pax Romana was a wise arrangement of Augustus which safeguarded the stability and prosperity of the Mediterranean and permitted the extension of civilization far inland. It lasted for over two centuries from his reign. One of his major intentions was to establish order at Rome and to ensure that plebeians did not engaging in rioting. His imperium over the province was defined as superior to that of other magistrate. The boundaries of the empire were insecure; the provinces were sullen and discontent. There were a large number of war veterans who had to be settled in Italy these were among a host of problem confronting Augustus. He started off settling the veterans in Italy and its neighbouring provinces and whatever remained was formed into a permanent army and navy. In 27 BCE the senate granted him proconsular imperium over Spain, Gaul and Syria for a 10 year period and granted him the title Augustus. He proclaimed the restoration of the Republic but however behind the veneer of the Republic was the strong hand of Augustus. He was the “princeps” or first citizen of Rome. Technically the Republican Government continued in the same old fashion. The senatorial provinces to which senate assigned proconsuls were subject to Augustus overriding power (maius imperium). The Roman Army which had bloated to 50 legions during the civil war was cut to 28 legions. It was no longer a conscripted army instead a group of professionals serving for period of 20 years. Along with the Legions which were all citizen body a new provincial army called the Auxilia was formed. These consisted of provincials who after 25 years of service were granted Roman citizenship. These were then posted to areas which suffered frequent outbreaks of rebellion.

Augustus raised a new force to guard himself, which was called the Praetorian Guard. There were nine cohorts of these based in Italy with three being on the outskirts of Rome. One cohort consisted of six hundred solidiers. This served as Augustus’ personal guard and helped maintain law and order. To this he added another group called the Urban Cohorts — the police force of Rome. These were the only military forces permanently stationed in Italy. But the overall responsibility for keeping peace was given to a magistrate known as praefectus urbi. He was king’s deputy. But he had all powers except jurisdiction over the praectorian guards. He was the intermediator between kings and magistrates. Augustus had seven cohorts and four night watchmen.

There was supplying of free ration to poor citizens. The vast empire provided the roman state with the resources for obtaining large quantity of grain to feed the capital. Africa was being a main supplier of grains to Rome. At the time of Augustus, three censuses were taken and the eligibility for free grain was determined through these censuses. He reduced the number of senators to 600. Egypt was like a personal belonging to the king. The army was now sent to conquer Germania and secure the northern boundaries of the Empire. Thus, in 15 BCE Switzerland and Austria fell into Roman hands. Attacks by Agrippa and Tiberius bought Roman power to the middle of the Danube and further campaigns led to the conquest of Moesia (Bulgaria). Thus by the 9 BCE Roman army had reached the banks of the Elbe. No Roman Leader had ever added so much territory as did Augustus. Conquest however, was easier than consolidation and soon revolts were breaking out in these areas. In 9 CE Governor of Germania, Inferior P. Quinctilius Varus was sucked into a trap in the Teutoburger Forest by Arminius. Three legions were wiped out, Varus committed suicide and Germany was lost. In Spain, a revolt was going on that time under Seritorius. So Augustus initiated a policy of settling Romans in north and western Spain. Latifundias came up in Spain and Gaul. He promoted latinizaion of western provinces of the empire. Morocco was Latinized due to the influence of Rome. Ageing Augustus didn’t have the military strength or energy to launch a reconquest and thus the Roman frontier remained on the Rhine. Thus began a period of frontier defense when the legions were stationed at the borders. These legions became the source of Romanization. Near its posts rose colonies which often developed into cities. The entire Mediterranean was under Roman control .So long distance trade and commerce flourished. It was by exploiting the intense desire for peace and stability; he transformed the republic to monarchy. People considered him as a semi divine person. The name of Julius Caesar was crucial for justifying the absolute authority of Augustus.

Augustus was followed by a series of Julo- Claudian Rulers till 68 CE. These were Tiberius (14-37 CE) and Gaius Gracchus (37-41 CE), Claudius (41-54 CE) and Nero (54-68 CE). Nero eliminated all his rivals and killed the prominent senators even his mother and aunt. He was the last ruler from Augustus family. Following the overthrow of Nero by the revolt of the provincial armies, the military became the kingmaker. Already in 41 CE the Praetorian Guard had installed Claudius in opposition to the Senate. The major armies engaged in a quick but violent civil war which threw up the General T. Flavius Vespasianus (69-79 CE) as the Emperor. Vespasian’s two sons Titus (79-81 CE) and Domitian (81-96 CE) ruled in succession, until the safety valve of assassination again came into play and removed Domitian. Nerva (96-98) became the emperor and he started adopting successors during the life time of the emperor with the support of Senate and the army. Therefore, at the end of the 1^st Century AD Rome was still growing strong under the successful working of the Roman Administration under the Principate founded by Augustus. 96- 180 AD was known as the golden age or roman empire which saw the rise of 4 important rulers. After Nerva, Trajan (98-117) became the emperor. He had the policy of empire expansion. He annexed the land across the Danube. He was dide in AD 117 and Hadrian (117-138) became the ruler. He continued with the policy of defence. After him, in 138 AD Antonius Pius became the emperor. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius (161-180). They together known as ‘The Antonines’. After him, his son Commodus, then Pertinax, and later septimius servus became the emperors. He was the first emperor of African origin. So he made the recruiting of solidiers from all parts of the empire. He reduced the role of senate in the government. He was succeeded by his son Caracalla. He extended citizenship rights to all citizens in 212 AD. But by this time socio, economical and political problems started in Rome. He was not able to cop up with the financial burden of the state. This led to the debasement of coins and taxes were increased. He was murdered. After Caracalla, many rulers came and ruled Rome. But all of them were either murdered or they didn’t rule for a long time. So in 235 AD, the idea Principate came to an end and a triangular conflict between the emperor, senate and army began.

Thus, the story of Roman Empire has woven into itself vivid hues of human nature—passion, conspiracy, compromise and of course, betrayal. However, in an empire riding high on ambitions, treachery was but just a tool to fulfil the innate desire to savour the fruit of power and position. For centuries stand witness to the fact that trust and betrayal go hand in hand in making empires as well as ruining them, and, the legacy still continues.