Evaluate the contribution of Raja Rammohan Roy in the social and cultural transformation of India.

Traditionally perceived as the “Father of Modern India”, Raja Rammohan Roy has in recent times become a source of great debate, with historians disagreeing on the exact nature of his role in Indian social and cultural transformation. This essay will attempt to analyse Raja Rammohan Roy’s life and then discuss the views and arguments of the various historians.

Raja Rammohan Roy’s Life:

Unfortunately we do not have a very complete picture regarding the intellectual influences and social experience in the pre 1815 period. But, what we do know is that he was born in 1772 in a Vaishnavite family, (but the influence was negligible according to Barun De). Raja Ram Mohan Roy learnt Persian and Arabic at a very young age, and also studied the Quran and Mohammedan law. In fact he was well versed in the 63 schools of Mohammedan theology. Besides that he was also familiar with Sanskrit and had studied the Vedas, the Upanishads, Hindu law and Brahmanical literature as well.

According to many historians his early exposure to Indian Muslim as well as Hindu tradition played a vital role in the make up of his ideology and the east- west synthesis, which is often lauded for. B. N. Seal believes that the free thought and universalistic outlook of the Mohammedan Unitarians, the Muwahhiddins were a powerful influence during this period on Roy’s mind. He was equally interested in Sufi mysticism and poetry. The dominant influence of Islamic theology in his early life is evident from his first extant work, Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhiddin.

Most of his formative years were spent travelling widely and mastering several languages- Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic and later Hebrew, Greek, and English in addition to his native Bengali and Hindi. Financial support was established through money lending, managing his small estates and speculating in the British east India Company Bonds. In 1805, Raja Ram Mohan Roy was introduced to Western culture and literature through his employer in the British east India Company- Simon Digby.

Views on religion:

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was against religious exclusiveness. He believed that all religions exhibited a general unity regarding the existence of the Supreme Being who has created and sustained the whole Universe; the differences arise only when they start assigning attributes to that being. He presents his early thoughts on religion in Tuhfat-ul- Muwahhiddin (1803) or ‘Gift to Deists’, his first extant work.

He advocated a monotheistic Hinduism in which reason would guide the adherent to “the Absolute Originator”. He sought a philosophical base in the Vedas and the Upanishads, which he translated into Bengali, Hindi and English and wrote commentaries on in order to make them more accessible to the populace. Against idolatry, Roy was convinced that most people suffered because of their ignorance of the shastras. The Vedas according to him spoke of the unity and omnipresence of God, which few Hindus seemed to follow. The first to translate the sacred texts into Bengali, Raja Rammohan established the ‘Atmiya Sabha’ in 1815 to propagate his doctrines of monotheistic Hinduism. Though the Sabha turned out to have a short life, it was an important antecedent of the more long lasting and important ‘Brahmo Samaj’, established in 1828.

John Digby introduced Raja Ram Mohan Roy to Christianity. The missionaries who by the 1813 Charter Act had been preaching throughout the country drew him to the religion. Roy was influenced most by the religion’s ideal humanity and its tendency to promote the peace and harmony of human kind at large. But, the large body of Christian dogmas was unreasonable and unscriptural according to him. He studied the New Testament and wrote a book where he sought to emphasise the moral principles of Christianity. The book, which was translated into Bengali and Sanskrit, sparked off a tremendous debate between the Serampore missionaries and Raja Ram Mohan Roy.

The book which aimed at a rational interpretation of the gospels, was considered to be unwarranted by the members of the Christian orthodoxy and missionaries and fetched him the titles of ‘heathen’ and ‘infidel’. Even his defence, entitled “An Appeal to the Christian Public in Defence of the Precepts of Jesus” where he said that while a lot of religious and historical passages in the Gospels were disputable, they contained within themselves a moral code which was of great benefit to mankind; failed to appease the missionaries. His knowledge of the Old and New Testaments as well as familiarity with the intricacies of Greek and Hebrew idioms is reflected clearly in his Final Appeal. Though many biographers like Mary Carpenter have tried to portray Raja Ram Mohan Roy as a Christian it seems rather improbable that a man who so obviously believed in the unity of religions would tie himself down to one religion.

Press:

A progressive thinker Raja Ram Mohan Roy believed in the freedom of the press and was convinced of the power of the press and its importance in shaping public opinion and disseminating different ideas and information. He thus used the missionary press till 1821 to propagate his social, religious, educational and political reforms. There after he made the full use of the 19th century innovation- Vernacular Press, and started his own Bengali newspaper.

Consequently, the Bengali weekly Sambad Kaumudi (Moon Of Intelligence) became on 4 December 1821, the first newspaper to be edited, published and managed by Indians. The paper mainly sought to deal with “religious, moral and political matters, domestic occurrences, and foreign as well local occurrence.” On April 12 1822, he started the Persian weekly- Mirat-ul- akhbar (Mirror of Intelligence), to mobilise the Muslim populace. Aimed at the common man, both the journals became crucial instruments in informing the people about various important social, political and religious problems of the day. The Sambad Kamudi became a regular platform to air anti- sati agitation. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was also associated with the Bengal Herald/ Hindu Herald started in English, Bengali, Persian and Hindi.

Turned to social and political action:

1823 marked an important turning point in Ram Mohan’s life. It was then that he turned away from religious polemic to social and political action. The British had at that point of time imposed censorship on the Calcutta press and Roy ceased publication of the Mirat and organized protests in retaliation. He rallied for freedom of religion and speech as natural rights and when the government introduced the press censorship regulations, Ram Mohan drew up a petition on behalf of the press. He argued that the free press would in reality help the British government stabilise and not the contrary. Despite the rejection of the petition, it proved to be very significant. Not only did it put forth Roy as the true champion of the liberties and the press in India, but the petition in itself also proved to be a model for the later liberal thinkers and political activists fighting against the British injustices.

The increased penetration of the British and the western ideas were crucial for the development of the Bengali political consciousness. Roy was instrumental in giving shape and direction to this consciousness. His political ideas were once again based on the assimilation of different ideas. From Montesquieu he derived the ideas of ‘Separation of powers and of the Rule of Law.’ Bentham sparked off his interest in the problems of legislation. Blackstone’s commentaries taught him the importance of civil liberty, an unknown entity in pre- British India. The French Revolution too, had a great impact on him. A practical reformer, Ram Mohan was in favour of law- making by the “supreme legislative power”, the British Parliament, but not without any reflection of the Indian public opinion. Thus his movements for a free press, which he believed was the link between the government and the people.

But Roy at no point of time advocated Universal suffrage for India, displaying full faith in the “enlightenment of the benevolent government”. Raja Ram Mohan Roy wanted a permanent union of Britain and India, under a liberal system of government, convinced that the colonization of India would lead to her improvement in literacy, social and political affairs.

Most agree that the 19th century intellectuals like Raja Ram Mohan Roy never understood the true nature of British rule. Many members of the intelligentsia accepted and at times even welcomed the alien rule believing that it would help India develop and progress not only socially but also economically and politically.

At the same time, there were others in the 19th century who realised the true exploitative nature of British Colonisation not only in the sphere of economics but also in politics. In fact Raja Ram Mohan Roy himself estimated the drain of wealth from India between 1765 and 1820 to be 110 million pounds. He realized that this drainage was holding back domestic Indian economic development, and as a result led a protest against British legal and revenue administration.

The 19th century also saw the introduction of the new British education system, which introduced western ideals and religious philosophies thus forcing a few of the Indian elite to compare and question the prevalent Hindu traditions and society. Ideas such as equality, liberty, charity and fraternity along with the Christian principles of monotheism and a moral value system, were just some of the ideas that challenged the existing system.

As a result Bengal, specifically Calcutta (where the educational opportunities were most prolific), saw the formation of a small group of Indian elite committed to the cause of social reform. These individuals for the first time began questioning social practices like sati, prohibition of widow remarriage, and treatment of widows, mechanisms of social avoidance and the young age of marriage. However they never sought to overthrow the Hindu society or principles. They simply argued that these practices were in contradiction to what the ancient scriptures say. These injustices, they said, were actually reflective of the degeneration of Hindu manners and true Hindu heritage.

Social reforms:

The Anti- sati campaign initiated in 1818 was the hallmark of Rammohan’s career as a social reformer. He produced 2 pamphlets in which he presented the religious and social issues in the form of a dialogue between an opponent and an advocate of sati and sparked off an unprecedented debate among the Calcutta intelligentsia. Basing his arguments on scriptural authority as well as humanitarian considerations he also advocated material reforms to make reforms more effective.

In 1822, Roy published a pamphlet called “Modern Encroachments on the Ancient Rights of Females According to the Hindu Law of Inheritance”. As the long title indicates, the tract argued that while women had been accorded equal rights by the ancient law givers, the modern period saw developments directly contrary to this, as is evident from unequal property rights and polygamy. His main point was hence that no lasting improvements in the position of women could be brought about without giving them the right to property. Moreover, the lack of education, he said was the principal reason for the inferior status of women. The intense campaign was taken to the masses through the use of papers such as his own Sambad Kaumidi. He constantly lobbied the British to ameliorate the condition of women by passing a law for the abolition of sati. Finally, on 4th December 1829, William Bentinck the then Governor- General, passed a regulation declaring the practice as illegal and punishable as a criminal offence by as much as a death sentence.

Educational reforms:

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was also an advocate of educational reforms. Equating education with practical knowledge, which would be essential to an individual’s life, Roy was convinced that Western education would widen the outlook of his countrymen. Consequently, 1816-17 saw the establishment of the first Indian run, English school known as the Anglo Hindu School at Calcutta for boys. The subjects taught in this free school included Maths, Natural Sciences, and Philosophy.

In 1825, he established the Vedanta College, which propagated the principles of monism. Considered by many to be a pioneer of modern education in India, he helped stimulate scientific enquiry, revitalized vernaculars and developed regional languages. His foremost contribution was however the creation of a spirit of self- reliance in the Indians. It was this sentiment that ultimately led to the emergence of nationalism in India.

Brahmo Samaj:

Reform also raised questions about the nature of the Hindu tradition. The questioning of Hindu identity was reflected in the series of religious reform and/or revival movements. It was the blend of the 2, which could be seen in the Brahmo Samaj established in 1828. It appealed to the Western educated men who wanted to explore the spiritual borders and at the same time offered to the Indians a whole new intellectual world opened up by the contact with the westerners.

Roy’s main aim was to found a faith based on rationality, which drew on Hinduism, Islam as well as Christianity. The members were hence monotheists, opposing idol worship, emphasising spiritual devotion to God rather than elaborate external ceremonies. God in the Brahmo conception was eternal, infinite, transcending speech and thought, and the cause and source of all that exists. Man on the other hand was reality and individuality of the human soul. Worship was defined as communion of God and soul and not through ceremonies or rites. The universal religion of the Brahmo Samaj can thus be described as a Universal principle, a critique to be applied to every existing religion through its own scriptures. Brotherhood of man and truth were the corner stones of the Brahmoism and there was opposition to orthodoxy of any kind in any religion.

The philosophy of the Samaj advocated the idea of social reform in which all known penalized classes or groupings like peasants, workers and women were to be elevated through education and the extension of civil rights to participate fully in the benefits of modern civilization. The aim of the Samaj was to teach and practice reform that would elevate people spiritually but also socially, intellectually, physically and politically. As a result the Brahmo Samaj became an active forum for all reform but especially socio- religious reforms.

The Samaj members included a number of reformers from East India who agitated for government support for reforms and tried to practice what they propagated. Despite certain internal dissensions the Samaj continued to do good work. Its work in the field of women’s education in the face of grave social opposition and public ridicule was remarkable. Besides establishing a number of schools in India, the Samaj also took on the work of the revival and development of the Bengali language. Many later leaders continued to use the Samaj as forum of religious reform. However, the issue of reform was a rather tense one. There were deep divisions regarding the British intervention in Indian society, so much so, the Indian National Congress in its formative years refused to discuss the issue.

The Brahmo Samaj drew most of its supporters from the rising middle class of Bengal. As Kotnala points out, the role of Rammohan Roy in Bengal was the fact that his ideas suited the needs and social requirements of the new social classes trying to break away from certain existing norms. The active support hence came from the intelligentsia, the merchants and the new feudal- bourgeois zamindars of the British regime. The movement which acquired an All India character, ultimately developed in to a separate faith governed by its own marriage laws.

Views on extent of his achievement:

The role of Ram Mohan and the Brahmo Samaj is debated a great deal. While traditional literature sees the Brahmo Samaj as the key institution in the process of Bengal Renaissance. However, Charles Heimsath questions the effectiveness of what he calls a ‘modernizing elite’. According to him the Brahmo Samaj, while acting as a refuge for rebellious and frustrated intellectuals who needed congregational support for their aberrations from established customs, also held aloft an open, if naïve, offer to all Indians to forsake their erring ways and return to the truth. 

In Sumit Sarkar’s view, applying the title of “Father of Modern India” to Roy would signify that a decisive break-through towards modernity took place during his time and mainly due to his beliefs and actions. But, says Sarkar, in fact his achievements as a modernizer were very limited and the renaissance culture that he is said to have inaugurated remained largely confined to the elite. Moreover he points out that the degeneration in Roy’s later writings display a certain retreat.

The Tuhfat, according to Sarkar displays early Muslim rationalism (as is practiced by Mutazilas of 8th century and the Muwahiddin of the 12th century). His later years however show a slide back from this rationalism not only in intellectual argument but also in social practice. A desire to be all things to all people seems to dominate the later Rammohan, which displays a certain eclectism.

Certain discrepancies are also visible in the religious beliefs of Roy as were practiced by the Brahmo Samaj. For instance, while they attacked idol worship, the fundamental barrier to radical and lasting change- caste, was not a point of focus till 1860’s. The fundamental inadequacy of the Samaj and the ideas of its founder lay in the fact that it was far too intellectual to be accepted as a popular faith. As Sarkar points out, The Samaj failed to link up with the numerous lower caste monotheistic movements, perhaps because of the English education, which had a negative effect.

Sarkar believes that the limitations and contradictions of Raja Ram Mohan Roy can be traced to the basic nature of British impact on Indian society. Though rooted in the composite Persian culture initially (as is seen in the Tuhfat and Mirat), later on he has been criticized for using terms like ‘Muslim tyranny’ in the Appeal to the King in Council against the 1823 Press Regulation. Many have accused him of being less than critical of the East India Company’s misadministration vis-a –vis the zamindari system. This might have been due to the fact that intelligentsia members like Roy and Dwarkanath Tagore envisioned the development of a bourgeois class in collaboration with British capitalists, while overlooking the negative impact on Domestic economy.

Despite the above criticism one cannot undermine the contributions of Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Despite working in a time frame where British rule was accepted and at times even appreciated, he managed to lay the foundation for the future generation of reformers. His agitation against sati and widow remarriage, the establishment of schools, propagation of monotheism, agitation for freedom of press, speech and religion, moderate constitutional agitation, Indianization of services, propagation of the Bengali language and emphasis on inclusion of Indian public opinion (that of zamindars, merchants and officials) on legislative matters, are some of his contributions to the creation of a firm foundation for future reforms. Roy’s vision and modernity of thought sets him in a class of his own. It was he who among others heralded the cultural and ideological struggle in the newly emerging colonial context of India. Raja Ram Mohan Roy can thus be accorded an influential role in Indian history.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

  • Bipin Chandra- India’s struggle for Freedom
  • C.Joshi (ed)- Essays on Rammohan Roy
  • Kenneth W. Jones- The New Cambridge History of India- Socio-religious reform movements in British India.
  • M. C. Kotnala- Rammohan Roy and Indian Awakening
  • Internet