MONGOL THREAT/NORTHWEST FRONTIER POLICY
In the early decades of the 13th century Asia and Europe experienced a new wave of nomad conquerors from the east, an invasion more formidable and devastating than any other known to history before. These new invaders were the Mongols, who were best known for the great empire which they formed under Chengiz Khan.
The Mongols were a barbaric, uncivilized nomadic tribe originating in the Steppes region. The sudden rise of the Mongols fell in line with an old pattern which was characteristic of the steppes. Long periods on internecine conflict between bands of nomads would thrown up a leader of outstanding ability who after ironing out differences between the warring hordes welded them into a powerful coalition. Through choice or compulsion these various factions were brought into a coalition. Chengiz Khan, born as Temuchin, was one such leader who succeeded in building up the Monglos into a stupefying striking force.
The first military efforts of Chengiz Khan were devoted to bringing the pastoral tribes of the eastern steppes under his sway. He now ruled over an immense confederacy of Mongol, Turkic and Manchurian tribes. In 1206, he was declared the ‘Qaghan of all Mongolia’. With internal stability, the Mongols now set their eyes on areas outside the confines of Mongolia. By the end of 1211 Chengiz Khan was able to breach the Great Wall of China and laid hold of Peking. Soon after the Mongol attention was drawn to Tranoxiana and Khurasan which formed the dominions of the Khwarizm Shah. The defence of the Khwarizm Empire crumbled before the Mongol siege and Bukhara and Samarqand fell in 1220 in the midst of fearful carnage. It had taken the Mongols only three years (1219-1222) to complete the annexation of Transoxiana and Khurasan. The successor to the throne of the Khwarizm Empire, Jalulddin, fled towards India seeking refuge at the court of the Delhi Sultan-Illtutmish. This turned the Mongol attention towards India as Chengiz Khan was in pursuit of Jalulddin.
The independent Delhi Sultanate had come into existence almost simultaneously with the rise of Chengiz Khan. The Sultans had hardly set up their administrative institutions that the Mongol danger began to loom dangerously on the Indian horizon. Broadly speaking, the policy of the Delhi Sultanate rulers towards the Mongols had three distinct phases-aloofness, appeasement and resistance.
The policy of aloofness was maintained by the foresighted and able Illtutmish. When Chengiz Khan had appeared on the Indian doorstep Illtutmish had found himself in a spot of bother. He could neither help Chengiz nor could he protect Jalulddin. Chengiz was not the type to tolerate any opposition to his military endeavors, while, Jalulddin was a military leader par excellence. Thus, given the opportunity he could have established the Khwarizmian hegemony in India. Hence, his stay in India was as dangerous to the sultan’s interests as the presence of Chengiz. Besides, the cis-Indus region where Chengiz had mustered his forces, was inhabited by forces or tribes which were hostile to the Sultanate of Delhi and had all the potential of turning into a dangerous zone of opposition against the Sultanate. It was this complicated political situation against which Illtutmish had to adopt his policy with reference to the Mongols.
Both Chengiz and Jalulddin had sent their envoys to the court of Illtutmish. The envoy of Jalulddin was put to death and a message was sent to the fugitive prince that the condition in India was not yet suitable for him to be granted shelter. He took this opportunity to enter into a non-aggression pact with the Mongols by which it was declared that no enemy of the Mongols would be granted shelter by the Sultan of Delhi, the sultan would not embark upon an expansionist policy to extend his interests into regions like Sind and Multan, where the Mongols had their vested interests and in return the Mongols had to respect the territorial integrity of the Turks.
Illtutmish had laid the basic principles on which any policy with reference to the Mongols had to be formed. This was a clear policy of dignified aloofness from Central Asian politics and strict avoidance of provocation to the Mongols. Thus, by following this policy Illtutmish was able to avoid a direct confrontation between the Sultanate and Chengiz Khan, which could have spelt disaster for the Sultanate. Thus, according to A.L.Shrivastava, “Illtutmish’s wise policy removed a great danger which was threatening to engulf Delhi. Chengiz Khan who was probably not desirous of violating a neutral state returned from Afghanistan and thus Delhi was saved”.
However, following the death of Chengiz Khan Illtutmish had seized Multan and Uch, thereby, removing the buffer state which had existed between the Delhi Sultanate and the Mongol Empire. Illtutmish now stood in direct contact with the Mongols without any shock-absorber in between. However, internal struggle within the Mongol Empire following the death of Chengiz between his sons thwarted any immediate threat from the Mongols. Moreover, Raziya Sultan, who had succeeded her father Illtutmish continued to follow a similar policy towards the Mongols. Hasan Qurlugh, the ruler of Ghazni wanted to form an anti-Mongol alliance with the Sultanate in order to thwart the Mongol threat on his borders. However, Raziya refused to enter into any such alliance. Thus, till the 1240s there were no major Mongol attacks on India.
It was only following the death of Illtutmish and Raziya that the Mongols made attempts to establish their strongholds in India. The assembly of Mongol princes had decided in 1229 that they would continue on a policy of reconquest and annexation of territories contiguous to the Delhi frontier but for many years there had been a lull on the Indian frontiers. It was only from 1240 onwards that the Mongol operations started in the upper Indus; the period between 1240 and 1266 marked the beginning of the Mongol policy of annexation of India and the phase of the non-aggression pact had come to an end.
In 1241, Ugudy dispatched an army under the command of Tair Bahadur and occupied the city of Lahore. With this military operation the non-aggression pact had come to an end. This was followed by two successful invasions in 1245-46. The establishment of the Mongol power in Lahore made the position of Delhi extremely precarious. Attempts were made to recapture Lahore but all went in vain and only a small portion of Lahore could be recaptured; despite the repeated efforts of Balban during the reign of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud, the Sultanate frontier during this period only stood at Beas. Balban still wanted to adopt a more forward policy and attack the Mongol strongholds but the factionalism within the Turkish nobility prevented him from doing so. Thus, the frontier commanders of Multan and Sind were left to handle the Mongols themselves. Some of them took this opportunity to enter into deals with them the Mongols, setting themselves up as independent rulers under the overall lordship of the Mongols.
Thus, open resistance was rejected as beyond the region of practical politics and a policy of appeasement was evolved. This was to act as a way of preventing further Mongol invasions into Delhi and maintaining status quo. When Nuyin invaded Multan in 1246, Shaikh Baha-u’d-din Zakariyya was requested to intervene and it was through his intervention that the Mongols retired after realizing an indemnity of one lakh dinars. In 1258, Baghdad was sacked by the forces of Hulagu. Legally the Sultanate was part of the Abbasid Caliphate and as such it should have reacted strongly against such actions. However, apart from the rehabilitation of the refugees, the Sultanate did not take any notice of this act. Two years after the incident, emissaries from the Mongol court visited India and the Sultan of Delhi, eager to win the goodwill of a powerful neighbor accorded a royal reception to them. The gesture did not go unreciprocated and Hulagu warned his soldiers “If the hoof of your horse enters the dominion of Sultan Nasiru’d-din, all four legs of the horse shall be cut off”.
A distinct change in the Sultanate policy with reference to the Mongols can be seen from Balban’s reign onwards. On the whole it was a phase of ‘resistance’. However, Balban adopted both military and diplomatic measures to check the Mongol threat. The decision to send the envoy to the court of Hulagu had been his decision. However, once he became Sultan in 1266 he decided to deal with the Mongols with a heavier hand. This was also motivated by the fact that by the time he had ascended the throne Hulagu had died, thereby, ending the nebulous agreement and goodwill which had existed between the Mongols and the Sultan.
At the outset Balban adopted a forward and aggressive policy. His main aim was to keep the Mongols away, atleast from the Beas and thus he remained largely in Delhi itself. When his ministers suggested the conquest of Malwa and Gujarat and advised him to pursue an expansionist policy Balban had replied saying “When the Mongols have occupied all lands of Islam, devastated Lahore and made it a point to invade our country once in every year…If I move out of the capital the Mongols are sure to avail themselves of the opportunity by sacking Delhi and ravaging the doab. Making peace and consolidating our power in our own kingdom is far better than invading foreign territories while our own kingdom is insecure”.
In order to make the Northwest frontier more strong and secure he constructed a series of forts, the ones at Bhatinda, Sunam and Samana were reinforced and placed a large and efficient army there. The frontier regions were put under the charge of his cousin, Sher Khan but once Balban suspected him of harbouring dreams of independence he got him killed. The frontier region was now divided into two parts. Multan, Sindh and Lahore were given to his eldest son, Prince Muhammad and Sunam and Samana were given to his younger brother Bughra Khan. Balban kept nearly 17-18,000 well trained soldiers at the frontier region to face and fight the Mongols and even the soldiers stationed at Delhi were always kept prepared to move to the frontier in case of an urgent need at the time of a possible Mongol attack.
Prince Muhammad was such an able and brave general that his military arrangements at Multan and Lahore, with the river Beas as the line of military defence continued to hold. The Mongols no longer dared to attack across the Beas and that even large forces of the Mongols could not face the forces of the Sultanate at Multan, Samana or Delhi. However, he was killed during a chance encounter in 1285; this was a huge personal blow to Balban who could never really recover from this loss. However, Balban’s aggressive stance against the Mongols had successfully repulsed and the frontier region had been so effectively guarded that, even under a weak ruler like Kaiqubad, the Mongol invaders were pursued as far as the Salt Range.
In 1290 Jalulddin Khalji ascended the throne of Delhi. Just after two years, a Mongol army headed by Abdullah invaded India. Jalulddin tried to check this invasion by marching towards the Mongols with a large force. It seems that there was some kind of agreement between the two as the Mongols agreed to withdraw after a few skirmishes. Jalulddin had a cordial meeting with Abdullah and a party of the Mongols headed by Ulaghu Khan, embraced Islam. They were allowed to settle down near Delhi along with their families. The sultan married one of his daughters to Ulaghu. Around 5000 Mongols became muslims and settled down in Delhi. These cordial relations suggest that a tacit agreement had been reached between the two sides not to disturb the status quo, leaving the Mongols possession of West Punjab.
However, according to many scholars this conciliatory policy followed towards the Mongols was unwise and counter-productive. It gave them an opening into the internal workings of the Sultanate and they were able to find a way to Delhi. Changes in the Mongol domestic politics created a new situation in which the Mongols for the first time posed a serious danger to Delhi. Their was a reversal in their policy as they now began to plan the conquest of India, instead of just plunder, and nursed an ambition to establish their empire in India. This change of policy had become clear during the reign of Alauddin Khalji.
The first inkling of a new Mongol policy came in 1297-98 when a Mongol army of 100,000 sent by Dawa Khan crossed the Beas and Sutlej and the road to Delhi seemed open before them. However, Alauddin’s large army met the Mongols at Jullundhar and completely routed them. About 20,000 Mongols were killed as they fled across the river, and many others, including officers, were captured and done to death at Delhi. This was the most convincing win that a Sultan had achieved over the Mongols. A Similar victory was also achieved the following year.
These victories seemed to have created a false sense of security. Alauddin was completely caught unprepared when towards the end of 1299 the Mongols with a huge army invaded India, headed by Qutlugh Khan, the son of Dawa Khan. The Mongols this time did not ravage the countryside or the towns on the way, their objective being to conquer and rule Delhi. Hearing of their approach Alauddin quickly gathered an army and took position at Siri, which soon became overcrowded with common people from the surrounding areas as they took refuge at Siri as well. Alauddin had order his army to stand on guard and not to go out of their lines to attack the Mongols without his orders. However, one of his trusted generals, Zafar Khan who was itching for a fight attacked the Mongols and was ultimately defeated and killed.
The firmness of Zafar Khan, despite his defeat, seemed to have made an impression. Qutlugh Khan soon realized that he could not break Alauddin’s lines or capture Delhi. Thus, after skirmishes for two days he retreated and recrossed the Indus.
This full-scale Mongol attack on Delhi had come as a severe shock to Alauddin who now took steps to secure his position. A protecting wall around Delhi was built for the first time, and all the old forts on the route of the Mongols were repaired. Strong military contingents were posted at Samana and Dipalpur. Simultaneously he took steps to reorganize the internal administration, and to recruit a large army. These measures enabled Alauddin to meet the Mongol challenge even though the Mongol threat loomed over India for several more years.
In 1303, another Mongol invasion took place under the leadership of Targhi. Alauddin had just returned from the campaign of Chittor and his army needed to refurbished. Moreover, another part of his army had been sent to Bengal where they had faced a crushing defeat. The Mongols had also seized all the forts across Jamuna so that despite royal summons no troops from the doab could reach Delhi. However, Alauddin still faced this challenge bravely and created a strong position for himself by digging a trench all around the place where they were stationed. The Mongols did not attack this stronghold but continued to hover around Delhi creating fear among the citizens. However, the Mongols were no longer as strong as they used to be before and once again they retreated from India, without a fight.
A third and final attempt at the conquest of Delhi was made in 1305 when a Mongol army of about 30-40,000 marched rapidly across the Punjab destroying towns and cities on the way. Alauddin who’s army was much stronger now met the Mongols near Amroha and inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Mongols. The leaders of the Mongol army surrendered and were brought to Delhi, while about 20,000 Mongols were slaughtered.
These victories finally destroyed the aura of Mongol invincibility in India. The armies of the Sultanate had become so confident against the Mongols that they used to claim “A single Mussalman horseman would put to flight a hundred Mongol horsemen. The areas devastated by the Mongols were gradually brought under the plough once again and areas like Dipalpur and Lahore had become impassable barriers for the Mongols. The Mongol-held areas in West Punjab upto the river Indus were attacked so successfully that the dread of the Mongols among the people seemed to be vanishing. Thus, Alauddin not only defended Delhi and the doab from the threats of the Mongol but created conditions whereby the north-west frontier of India could be pushed back from the river Beas and Lahore to the river Indus.
However, the threat of future Mongol invasions could never be removed completely until and unless the Mongols dominated Afghanistan and the neighbouring areas. Thus, after the death of Alauddin the Mongol threat to India was revived.
Shortly after Ghiyasuddin’s accession to the throne, two Mongol armies reached Sunam and Samana, and marched up to Meerut. They were defeated with great slaughter. In 1326-27, the new Mongol ruler Tarmashirin invaded India but was pushed by Ghiyasuddin, who also extended his frontiers to include Peshawar and Kalanaur across the Indus to form a better defensive line against future Mongol invasions. However, after sometime, the Indian armies retreated behind the Indus which remained the frontier with the Mongols.
The boldest effort to counter the Mongol threat to India was made by Muhammad bin tughlaq. He recruited an army of 375,000 men for what he called his “Khurasan Expedition”. He wanted to conquer Ghazni, Kabul and the neighbouring areas-the staging places for invasions into India. Although, his plan failed it showed a good and deep strategic understanding of the North-west frontier of India.
Thus, the Mongol threat to India lasted for almost a hundred years gaining in intensity till it reached a climax during the reign of Alauddin Khalji. The Mongol incursions lead to the virtual loss of western Punjab beyond Lahore to the Mongol during the second half of the 13th century thereby creating a serious threat to Delhi and the Doab. The Delhi Sultanate rulers, however, organized their resources, and carried out a far-reaching restructuration of their economy to meet the Mongol threat. The Policies of the Sultans to face the Mongols were in relation to their strength. Under Chengiz Khan, the Mongols were at the height of their power. Thus, the Sultans preferred to adopt a policy which avoided direct confrontation with the Mongols. Similarly, the Mongols, despite their internal quarrelling, posed a strong threat to the Sultanate right after the death of Chengiz Khan. In order to deal with the danger at this time the Sultans instead of adopting a bold policy, followed a policy of appeasement towards them which helped in maintaining status quo. It was only when the Mongols had ceased to be the force that they used to be the Sultans decided to adopt a more aggressive policy against them and engaged in direct confrontation against the invading Mongols.
In all this the Delhi Sultanate had succeeded in preventing the Mongols from taking control of any parts of India except for Lahore, Multan, Sind and the surrounding areas. The Policies of the sultans had succeeded in keeping Delhi, the heart of the empire safe from Mongol encroachment and were able to successfully push the Mongols back. However, they failed in the task of building a viable line of defence based on Afghanistan in order to stem such future incursions. This eventually had lead to the invasion of Timur, causing havoc in the Sultanate and later of the Mughals which dealt the final deathblow to the Delhi Sultanate.