FIRST UNITED FRONT 1924-27

Background – founding of the CCP in 1921; reorganization of the KMT ; modification of the three People’s principles (1923-24).

In 1920’s – Chinese Communist party was still in its infancy – it was never a purely indigenous movement- rather closely linked with the political developments in Russia – under strong influence of the Comintern (the International Communist Movement). Period of 1920’s marked by an active interaction between the Comintern and the Chinese revolutionary movement. Russian dabbling in Chinese affairs (1920-27) ->

Founding of CCP; Reorganiztion of the KMT ; Formation of the 1st united Front.

Definition – Term UF means an ‘alliance’. In Communist terminology, it has been used to denote a strategy when the Communist party allies itself with the other political parties or groups for a common cause or against a common enemy. The basis for a UF is a common minimum programme. A UF does not mean merging together of Communist parties with the other groups.

  • Synopsis -Most important aspect that led to formation of the 1st UF- Moscow instructed Chinese communists to ally themselves ‘temporarily’ with the KMT (bourgeoisie) ‘till’ the time that the communists could be strong enough to mobilize the working classes -> proletariat revolution.
  • UF formed with great enthusiasm but it broke up very soon. Ended with a wave of repression against the Communists and the working classes. Repressors – Kuomintang assisted by the warlords and the imperialist powers.
  • Weaknesses inherent in the nature of the UF – Moscow represented selfish Russian interests ; CCP represented w/cl and peasant interests; KMT was essentially the party of the bourgeoisie and landlords.

 

 

Details –

First UF can be talked of in 3 ways – a) UF of KMT with Soviet Russia b) UF of KMT with CCP c) UF of workers, peasants, intellectuals, youth and national bourgeoisie.

Objective – to end colonialism and feudalism. Common aims of the UF strategy – national liberation and establishment of a democratic social and political structure in China.

Factors leading to Formation of the 1st UF – a) Conditions prevailing in China that made CCP and KMT decide to collaborate with each other

  1. b) International influences especially the typical Russian needs that necessitated this collaboration
  2. Russian interests – In early 1920’s, Soviet government and the Comintern believed that CCP and Kuomintang were progressive and revolutionary political groups striving for national liberation – hence they must come together in the common struggle. Internal developments in Russia esp the power struggle between Stalin and Trotsky after death of Lenin had tremendous impact on the direction followed by the Chinese Revolution.
  3. CCP interests – Chinese communist movement had developed totally under the influence of the Russian October Revolution. CCP still a new party – lack of funds and experience and absence of mass membership – hence Russian directions could not be overlooked. Also leaders of the CCP – Chen Tu hsiu and Li Ta Chow – realized that the KMT in early 1920’s was a much stronger force – experienced and led by a highly popular leader SYS. Hence it could be a ‘useful ally’ for the CCP
  4. KMT interests – SYS highly impressed with Russia and disillusioned with the West. SYS shared a warm relationship with the Russian delegates and hoped that cooperation with the Comintern and the CCP would help his party – representing landlord and bourgeoisie – would acquire a popular and mass character.

Chronology

1921-22 Maring – first Comintern delegate visited China – his proposal for a 2-party alliance between KMT and CCP rejected by SYS- but SYS agreed to permit Communists to join KMT as individual members.

26 January 1923- Sun-Joffe Declaration brought Communists and Nationalist closer. It was agreed that conditions were not ripe for establishment of communism or socialism and the immediate aim of China was achievement of national independence – Russia would help in this objective.

1924 – 1st UF formed with KMT leading the struggle for national liberation. 5 communists including Li Ta chow became part of the Presidium (Standing Committee) of the KMT. So there emerged a strong left wing within the KMT- yet the communist members were clearly instructed by the Comintern to ‘work towards strengthening the KMT’ -KMT should be the central force of the national revolution.

Initially the UF showed some positive results – SYS formed a revolutionary government at Kwangtung; work of reorganization of the party was completed; Whampoa Military Academy was established and Chiang Kai shek was sent to Russia for military training. KMT’s control over Canton was complete by 1925.

SYS died in 1925 – CKS new leader of KMT. The party continued to gain from the UF and from the Russian helpThe Nationalist government moved to Wuhan in October 1926 and in late 1926 KMT troops began the process of unification of China by launching the Northern Expedition. Within a short span the KMT gained control over ½ of China (defeated many warlords). CCP which organized large number of workers and peasants provided the strongest backing to CKS’s Northern Expedition. The UF also gave stiff resistance to imperialism –esp Japan and Britain.

–( Northern Expedition period highpoint of UF but it also marks the beginning of the breakup –alienation between the KMT/landlord, bourgeoisie and the communists/working classes.)

 Besides strengthening the KMT, The UF also promoted popular movements during 1925-26. May 30th Movement 1925 led to series of strikes, boycotts and anti-imperialist demonstrations – workers of Shanghai particularly important- this movement substantially radicalized Chinese political life. The KMT initially supported the striking workers but began to withdraw as the movement gained backing of students, merchants, chambers of commerce. Due to initial support by KMT, many labour and peasant unions came into being, latter in Hunan, eastern Kwangtung and western Kiangsi. Peasant Movement Training Institute sponsored by KMT in Hunan- appointed Mao as teacher. First National Congress of the Peasant movement held in 1926. All this developments welcomed by the communists but seen as warnings by KMT now under leadership of CKS.

Events leading to breakup of the UF –

-Shanghai remained a strong centre of w/cl movements throughout 1925-27- this culminated in the capture of the city by workers. General strike on 21 March 1927 followed by capture of the city by the revolutionary workers even before CKS’s Army entered it. CCP held a mass rally of the Shanghai citizens to elect officials of the Shanghai Peoples Government.

– 24 March 1927 – Nanking liberated from the warlords.

The victory of the revolutionary movement was also the ‘breaking point’ of the UF.

24 March 1927- British, American, Japanese and French warships shelled Nanking – marking the beginning of imperialist intervention to crush the Chinese revolution.Simultaneously there was retaliation from the Right reactionary wing within the Kuomintang as well –CKS’s role important in this. Unlike SYS, CKS never a sympathizer of the communists and workers.

12 April 1927- brutal surprise attack by KMT (right wing) on the Shanghai trade unions. Strikes banned, peasant associations liquidated, communists murdered, Soviet embassy in Peking attacked and Soviet advisors expelled

15 July 1927 – KMT announced the formal expulsion of the Communist members.

Political and economic nexus between imperialist forces and the feudal and capitalist sections of China reestablished.

The KMT repression was interpreted by the Comintern and the CCP as ‘betrayal of the bourgeoisie’ in the national revolution.

Causes behind failure of the 1st UF – Immediate cause – CKS’s brutal repression. But the breakup was imminent from the time of the formation of the UF.

Detailed analysis of Breakup – Differences between the two parties began to become evident soon after 1924.

  • SYS felt that since communists were joining the KMT the relationship is going to be between the master (KMT) and the subordinate(CCP)-failed to realize the real aim of the Comintern and the CCP. Moscow’s aim was to transform the KMT to its own image (amply reflected in the reorganization of the party) and the CCP’s aim was to strengthen itself through the UF.
  • As for CCP reaction to UF, ‘alliance with the bourg’ came as a shock to many like Chen Tu hsiu but there was no sustained opposition to Comintern proposal due to the party’s fragile position. The opposition however simmered throughout. Maintaining a separate identity was of crucial importance to most communists.

So neither SYS nor CCP did what Comintern asked them to do with their own desire. The inevitability of the breakup became definite after the death of SYS in March 1925.

The breakup may studied at 3 levels-

  1. The dissatisfaction o the conservative elements of the KMT with the policy of Russia and CCP
  2. The inevitable struggle for power between the Communists and the KMT
  3. Most importantly the inherent class contradictions

A section of the KMT – backed by landlords, gentry, bourgeoisie) opposed cooperation with communists and Russia from the beginning eg Hu Han Min – they formed their own group- Western Hills Faction- after SYS’s death and openly showed their opposition. Main issue of conflict – peasant agitation. Mao in his Hunan Report February 1927 – accuses this KMT section for addressing the peasant movement as one of ‘loafers’ and ‘rival undesirables’. Opposition of KMT not ideological, rather based on economic interests. Also against workers movements.

More important were the class contradictions- both parties were political representatives of different classes – these differences sharpened after SYS’s death. Any development implying change in the social order vehemently opposed by the conservative sections. The initial partial success of the UF brought to the surface the underlying conflicts among the varied elements (absence of SYS major reason). So even as the classes came together against imperialism and warlordism, they pulled in different directions on economic and social issues. As mass movements grew, new social and political alignments emerged and groupism was created. These class contradictions became very apparent during and after the large scale mass movement of 1925. The UF’s failure lay in the fact that it tried to achieve a nationalist revolution without a social revolution.

Role of CKS in Breakup of UF and his relations with Russia

CKS’s leadership of the KMT in the years 1925-27 very crucial to understand the breakup of the UF. CKS worthy successor of SYS in some ways – brought about superiority of the KMT, unification of the country and abolition of unequl treaties- but he proved absolutely against the social programmes envisaged by his predecessor. Identified People’s Livelihood with Communism and never encouraged it. Within the KMT CKS represented and led the Right wing group (the smaller left wing opposed him- Wang Ching Wei). Highly impressed with the effectiveness of centralized political power and party discipline he had observed during his stint in Russia, he used his Russian contacts (esp Borodin) to emulate the same in order to build his own power. Borodin did all he could to support CKS. Post SYS CKS became an unchallenged power and now his aim was to completely remove the opposing elements ie the communists. A year before the final onslaught (April 12 1927) CKS made his first serious attack on the communists by the coup of March 20, 1926 in Canton. After th coup, the communists were placed under severe restrictions. Russia’s reaction to the coup was strange. Stalin continued to insist that Chinese communists must surrender to the leadership of CKS and continue with the UF. This further encouraged CKS who began preparing for the Northern Expedition – meant to be an attack on warlords and for unification of the country. He wanted to use the communists and their power base among the masses to promote his own goals.

The coup of March 1926 and the following events clearly show that the Russians had failed to see the real motives of CKS and had actually placed the communists under direct control of their worst enemies. The Northern Expedition further increased CKS’s authority. Finally in the coup of April 27, 1927 CKS occupied Shanghai, completely crushed the CCP, Working class organizations and peasant associations. Marked by mass killings of communists and working class leaders- almost a systematic extermination of all communists. Li Ta chow one of the killed. So while the coup of March 20, 1926 was a bloodless one, one of April 1927 was full of killings. This incident is called the ‘white counter revolution’ of CKS.

Post-breakup period– CKS’s centre of authority was at Nanking- post coup once agin under directions of the Comintern,the communists established a parallel government at Wuhan along with Wang Ching Wei the left wing representative of the KMT. The Communists described the Nanking government of CKS as one established as a result of the alliance between the bourg and feudal elements. The Russian response to CKS’s actions was quite sheepish. In order to justify their earlier support to CKS, the Russians under Stalin interpreted this defection and betrayal of the UF by CKS as a positive development – this way the KMT was ‘purified’ and it had got back its ‘revolutionary’ character. These were mere explanations since CKS was very much in control of the KMT and he had now betrayed not only the Communists but the Russians as well.

In Wuhan under CCP control, the party, under new Comintern directions made an attempt to crush all KMT remnants and establish themselves as the superior one – this alerted Wang Ching Wei and he adopted a strong anti-Communist stance- took steps to crush all mass movements and expel communists from Wuhan- the events of June-July 1927 marked the final end of the 1st United Front.

Conclusion- at every step Russian intervention brought disaster to the United Front, to the Communists and to China. The main reason for the breakup of the UF was the failure of Russia to see the inherent class contradictions present in it and also its failure to realize the overambitious power drive of CKS. Russia had tried to help the Chinese Communist Movement by forming the UF. What resulted was absolutely the reverse. By 1927, the Communists were totally suppressed. For another few years they fled from one area to another until they finally settled in Mao’s first rural base (soviet) in Chingkanshan.