Factors which led to Bolshevik Revolution – Modern Europe – History DU Notes

Q- Discuss the factors that led to the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in October 1917.

Ans: There has been considerable difference of opinion on the issue of the most important revolution that occurred in 20^th century Russia. There were three main revolutions in Russia between 1905 & 1917: the 1905 revolution which converted the Monarchy; the February 1917 revolution which abolished the monarchy and the ‘Great’ October Revolution of 1917 which brought the Bolsheviks to power under V.I. Lenin. Most of the historiographical tradition considers the October revolution as the “main” revolution mainly because it was followed by 74 years of unchanged rule, while the 1905 revolution is looked merely as a “stepping stone”. Though this claim cannot be validated in terms of historical importance, we wont get into those realms of speculation and in this essay I endeavour to trace the developments and reasons that led to the Bolshevik victory in the “Great October Revolution” of 1917.

To give a general understanding of the revolution we need to first look at the first two revolutions, which, in perspective, ‘logically’ led to the October revolution. We shall first undertake a brief survey of the 1905 Revolution and the developments that followed it.

On 9^th January 1905, ‘Bloody Sunday’- Around 100,000 workingmen with their wives who approached the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to present a petition of grievances to the “All Highest” were shot at- 100 killed & many injured. The autocracy’s prestige was undermined as revulsion spread throughout the especially in the towns. The demands were basically for a constitutional order with 8-hour working days, civil liberties, and equality before law etc- among the concessions made were the creation of labour organizations.

A wave of ‘sympathy strikes’ followed with the radicals directing these to revolutionary ends. Radicalization came about after resistance to wage demands or minor concessions were made and new modern forms of struggle came about, like the creation of trade unions or local councils/soviets or workmen’s deputies to coordinate strike action within a given area & became politicized much later.

Strikes occurred in Russian Poland, Baltic provinces, Transcaucasia and Bakut & Odessa witnessing worst anti-Semitic programmes. Peasant disturbances fluctuated in intensity to rhythm of agricultural cycle with peak in May-July 1905, November 1905 & early summer 1906. Targets of attacks were landowners & officials, & not Tsar’s government per se. The agrarian movement politicized gradually with inauguration of an all-Russian peasant’s union.

Peace with Japan at Portsmouth (USA) on 29^th August led to ebbing of the revolutionary tide during the winter of 1905-06. Return of troops got delayed because of technical problems arousing soldier discontent leading to seizure of several towns. However the tough life of the barracks offered little scope for revolutionary propagandists, except in navy where the education standards were higher.

 The revolution, thus, had a universal character among the liberals, workers, peasants, non-Russian minorities, armed forces but had no unity between them because of the fragmented nature of society, each group having it’s own vision of revolution. There was cumulative radicalization borne out of government’s distinct responses to certain demands. The relationship with & between the intelligentsia was also divergent.

In the political sphere certain important developments took place. Following popular mood, Russian opposition shifted to the Left. A compromise between liberals & government ministers attempted at, but Nicholas II proposed contradictory policies to preserve own aristocratic prerogatives- representatives allowed but was against radical demands.

On 6^th August, The ‘Bulygin constitution’ was adopted- provided for a legislature, the state Duma, elected on a socially restrictive & indirect suffrage (workers had no vote). Though the Liberals did not approve they participated in the elections pressing for further concessions. The elections were never held and radical & autonomous militant organizations built upon strikes by printers & railway men. Universities were opened to public after lectures, & became ideal propaganda forum for the socialists.

In Mid-October 1905, the 1^st General strike in Russia occurred. Communications halted, factory work ceased, professionals brought by the League of Unions. Nicholas yielding to pressure (on Witte’s proposal) passed the ‘October Manifesto’ which provided for basic civil liberties, but was hated & distrusted by the Right & the opposition especially because a veritable ‘white terror’ was used to suppress revolutionary unrest.

These were the ‘days of liberty’ which were stained with blood- pogroms & patriotic demonstrations by the Right; political strikes by the Left; censorship vanished & press organizations mushroomed; radical émigré leaders returned from abroad & political prisoners released; Kadets became a political party & socialists held mass meetings- the Mensheviks (with their St. Petersburg Soviet) & Bolsheviks cooperated as much as they could.

November saw the 1st popular uprising in Russian heartland since the 17^th century. Employers & middle class now veered to the Right. By 3^rd December, the entire Soviet was into police custody & planned armed uprisings suppressed with massive collateral damage. All chances of reconciliation between the government & the public were doomed by such violent suppression.

 I shall now conduct a brief survey of the Constiutional Period & the Stolypin Reforms. On 20^th Feb, 1906,a Bicameral legislature was established with imperial decree & assent of both houses was now required to send bills to the emperor who was still the final authority & suffrage also remained limited to upper class & ethnic Russian. Trade unions & political parties were now legalized. P.A. Stolypin was the premier, & three Dumas were constituted under him: the 1^st Duma (27^th April- 9^th July 1906 dominated by the Kadets & liberals who were hostile to the government. A new constitution-“Fundamental Laws” was promulgated in April. Individual acts of terror replaced passive resistance. “Summary” trials sanctioned by the premier P.A. Stolypin sentenced many to death or exile for security offences. In the 2^nd Duma (20^th Feb- 3^rd June 1907) Right & Left wing extremists more strongly represented. Lower class & non-Russian representation cut down. This signaled the end of the first Russian revolution.

Problems arose on question of agrarian reform where socialization & not communal ownership was demanded On 9^th November 1906, peasant given right to consolidate land holdings & his legal disabilities were attempted to be removed but opposed by the intelligentsia as the reformers underestimated the extent & cost of the work required.

In the 3^rd Duma (1907-1912) which was custom made to fit government’s requirements, leadership was with the ‘Octoberists’ who backed agrarian programme & local self-government and who wanted effective reform of the antiquated military & naval establishment to be better prepared against the central powers. This infringed on the Tsar’s prerogative.

Stolypin had been known as an agrarian reformer with an aim to create a prosperous peasantry but most reforms did not take off because peasants preferred to sell their lands & escape to non-agricultural occupations in the towns, or because economic polarization came about with revival of ‘kulaks’, who were hostile to the communes. He became isolated in end-years, hated by the Left, by the Right (because he wanted to weaken the old landholding class), by the court (because he was seen as an adventurer of selfish aims) & even by the Monarch. Soon he was assassinated in 1911 to Nicholas’s relief & Kokovstov succeeded Stolypin. His tenure was marked with scandals thought respect for the rule of law grew among the officials. Pogroms & racist outlooks found solid ground under the Right wing extremists.

In the Left, revolutionaries were in retreat, SRs & SDs faced factionalism; RSDRP attempted reunification while Bolsheviks split into many ways. A religio-philosophical credo of ‘God-building’ developed by the syndicalists/leftists. Lenin approved a drift to criminality displayed in Stalin’s bandit raids to obtain funds.

Bolsheviks pushed Mensheviks out of trade unions, pension funds & other working class bodies.

In early 1912, the Bolsheviks took over RSDRP, overthrew critics, changed rulers & chose new central bodies prepared to obey them. The scene for victory in October 1917 was set.

There are two main recognized views of the constitutional period of Russia: the Optimists & Pessimists:

The Optimists saw a decline of autocracy with an evolution towards liberalism and political freedom. Parliamentary life grew, society became more progressive & democratic, humanitarian & liberal education spread, most views found representation in the periodical press, industrialization dealt with mass poverty. They believe that the war ruined Russia.

The Pessimists called it “Sham constitutionalism as ministers were not responsible to the Duma; Political terrorism came about; socio-economic problems persisted; landlords & capitalists still preferred by the Government. War provided the last push to bring whole rotten structure down.

Army, civilian & property losses were staggering and urban population faced problems by not been able to obtain food or fuel. Inflation increased. Nicholas II handed power to a reactionary Empress furthering the crisis of public neglect.

It was a period of cultural efflorescence especially in literature painting & music. Imperial monopoly over theatrical representations ended in 1882; in 1890s Symbolists made headway in poetry; matters of the spirit interested the writers; painting saw the age of ‘Avant Garde’ where neo-primitivism with its hastily applied distorted colours was in vogue.

The Silver Age of Russian Arts & Letters was rich in diversity & this created antagonism among people of conventional views, modernist trends appearing incomprehensible & abhorrent.

A study of the coming of the war is also necessary to understand the genesis of the 1917 revolutions. With defeat in the East, Russia sought compensation in the Balkans & Turkish straits that could antagonize Austria who could call on Germany for help. Main aim was to arbitrate to maintain balance of power between the 2 rival blocs. The 1907 Convention with Japan divided Manchuria into 2 spheres of influence, Korea annexed by Japan & Russian influence increased in Sinkiang. In the same year with England & France settle over Chinese sovereignty with Afghanistan going to the British & Iran/Persia divided into 3 zones. Tensions developed over the Ottoman Empire especially after the “Young Turk Movement” of 1908 that weakened Turkish power. Russo-German relations deteriorated after hostile exchanges in the press 1914 onwards especially with the German commander of Turkish forces prompting Russian naval build up in the Black Sea.

On 28^th June 1914, the heir to the Austrian throne was assassinated in Sarajevo by a Serb terrorist. Russia’s suggestion of appeasement after Austria’s 23^rd July Ultimatum was rejected. The Germans followed Russian mobilization of troops. On 1^st August 1914, war began and France & England declared war on the Central powers.

Russia was completely unprepared for war: teenagers pushed into conscription; severe arms/ammunition shortage (1 machine gun for 1000 men in 1914, 1 rifle for every 3, 1000 shells for every gun); incompetence in higher ranks. The increasing gulf between the fighting men & the civilians; industrial backwardness & geographical isolation; poor coordination between the entente powers- all were severe drawbacks that Russia faced.

In 1915, Russia had to abandon Galician & Russian Poland territories & the leadership was blamed for such. The empire was on the verge of collapse. Patriotic euphoria waned fast as Nicholas rebuffed society & summoned the Duma only rarely. During such crisis of national emergency, Alexandra (Nicholas’ wife) wielded authority carrying out cabinet reshuffles. Moderates started to lose initiative in the Duma by end of 1916.

Popular opposition grew with increasing economic hardships, resultant of conversion of industries to military production leading to inflation; the spread of cholera & typhus because of undernourishment & fatigue leading to employment of women in factory work. Strikes increased in frequency. Agricultural output also went down as produce was diverted to feed troops, as were the railways, food supplies, fuel supplies, transport etc. The suppression of working class organizations & newspapers also incited popular discontent. The urban population suffered as peasantry won government subsidies in return for service by their family member in the army, which led to hoarding of food grains. Also there was huge influx of almost 6 million refugees into the cities increasing pressure on existing resources.

Socialists were split in 3 ways over the war: ‘defensists’ who backed Allied cause; ‘Defeatists’ on the far Left; & ‘revolutionary defensism’. Most ideas gained currency in 1916-17 when soldiers aiming for peace by the overthrow of the regime joined 145000 workers on 9^th January 1917 in Petrograd.

Now I shall trace the immediate developments that led to the February Revolution and the consequent Provisional Government that was formed after its success. On February 22^nd 1917– strikers were locked out of the Putilov Arms factory. Between Mar 8 & 11, 1917(February 23-26, 1917 according to Old style calendar) riots & demonstrations were held in the capital ‘Petrograd’ with shortage of bread & coal assume a more serious character. On March 10– reserve battalions joined mutineers and with Nicholas I away at the front, people turned to the Duma for leadership. On March 11^th 1917, the Provisional government created by side stepping the imperial dissolution decree. Members include Duma leaders & public figures under Prime Ministership of George Lvov. Cadets had the greatest single representation. On Mar 15 (2^nd March, old style)– Nicholas II abdicates in favour of brother Michael who also abdicates. Romanov rule in Russia ended.

The provisional government was rivaled by the Petrograd Soviet of Worker’s and Soldier’s Deputies (dominated by moderate socialists who considered Russia unprepared for socialist revolution). The Mensheviks & SRs saw their role as support to the government to advance the interests of the working class, but this attitude made Russia ungovernable & had to be dropped after a few weeks.

 Among the achievements of the new government are: that it lasted 8 months (12 Mar-7 Nov); democracy & liberty promoted- equality before law to all citizens, full freedom of religion, of speech, press, assembly, unions, & strikes; autonomy to ethnic communities; labour legislation included 8-hour working day for some workers; etc. However some glaring shortcomings persisted: war continued, no definitive land settlement dissatisfying peasantry, inflation not checked, and industrial production did not increase- economy went downhill. Possible reasons could be limited authority & power with the government- little administrative apparatus, its administrative mistakes, & lack of representative & responsible Parliament.

The weakening of the Provisional government occurred steadily through its inception till October 1917. Lenin’s role is very important in Bolshevik victory of 1917. He considered conditions ripe for move towards the socialist stage from the bourgeois-capitalist stage that, to him, had been achieved in Russia. Immediate goals were peace, seizure of gentry land by peasants, control of factories by committees of workers, & “all power to the soviets”.

Crushing burden of war & increasing economic dislocation made the provisional government’s position even more precarious. The Allies saw revolutionary Russia as a liability & demands for goods could not be paid for or provided.

The “July days” that occurred from July 16 to July18 1917 saw an attempt by radical soldiers, sailors & mobs with Bolsheviks to seize power in Petrograd. The rebellion collapsed because the Soviet refused to endorse it, some military units proved loyal to the provisional government & because of the suspected “German connections” of the Bolsheviks. After the debacle, Lenin & other leaders fled to Finland. On 20^th July, 1917– Kerensky becomes PM after Prince Lvov resigned & socialists gained in the cabinet reshuffle. Opposition came from the Left as well as from the Right, which objected to the inability to maintain firm control over army & people, lenient treatment of the Bolsheviks, and its increasing socialist composition.

In August, in the State conference attended by Duma deputies, representations of organizations & groups like soviets, unions & local governments, socialist & non-socialist approaches see their differences increase. Kerensky received support from socialist deputies, while General Kornilov attracted the Democrats, army circles & middle class groups- to reestablish army discipline & law & order disapproving soviet activity. This was the “Kornilov Affair” which prompted Kerensky to appeal to the ‘people’ to “save revolution” from Kornilov.

 Between 9^th & 14^th September 1917: As advancing troops got demoralized, the Petrograd population was mobilized for defense, including the imprisoned Bolsheviks who were now released and soon retained the preponderance of military strength as it won over many adherents among the increasingly radicalized masses.

The Provisional government became even more despised by the Right for its betrayal of Kornilov, whose arrest led to increased military indiscipline.

Therefore, no political faction in Russia could offer any easy way out to the country’s predicament- it was difficult to either end the war or carry on fighting it.

The October revolution was not a “proletarian revolution” as is believed because the most important social group in the movement was the soldiers & not the workers, while the whole population was caught in revolutionary fervour- organized labour, peasants, women, students, clergymen, etc.

As ideas of “worker’s control” developed, the industrial employers united to form the ‘Committee of United Industries’ in Moscow in June 1917. Trade unions were a moderating force in 1917 while the Urban Soviets functioned as virtually parallel governments.

Agrarian revolution began in minor ways like taking over lands or burning of manor houses & later local land committees were given the right to decide the use of the land.

 The national minorities who wanted cultural & political autonomy within a democratic federal structure were dissatisfied with the Provisional Government & started to lean towards the Bolsheviks who stood for national self determination & determination with right to separate.

 On 13^th September 1917: Bolsheviks captured majority in the Petrograd Soviet, & a week later in the Moscow Soviet. Moderate socialists dominated the executive committee elected by the first all-Russian Congress of Soviets. As Bolsheviks were on the rise, Lenin urged for “seizure of power” from Finland & came incognito to Petrograd on October 23^rd. Most active assistant was Leon Trotsky/ Bronstein who had become the chairman of the Petrograd soviet in September.

Though the intentions of the Bolsheviks were known, the Provisional Government & the central soviet leadership seemed to be struck with paralysis. Bolsheviks called for a second National Congress of Soviets to seal their capture of many organizations. A military revolutionary committee in Petrograd was set up with the uprising timed for 24^th October (old style), a day before the Congress would meet.

On November 7^th 1917(25^th October, Old Style)- the “Great October Revolution” took place- Red Troops occupied various strategic points in the capital. In the early night hours of November 8^th 1917, Bolshevik-led soldiers of the Petrograd Garrison, sailors from Kronstadt, & the worker’s Red Guards occupied the Winter Palace, while Kerensky had escaped a few hours earlier. The ministers at the Winter Palace surrendered easily & the ‘coup’ was bloodless. Soviet government was established in Petrograd & in Russia.

By the autumn, thus, the Provisional government had lost mass support especially because it could not control the inflation within the country. Election were been postponed because of the continuing war & because of the fear of been thrown out of power. Though a coalition of the SRs, Mensheviks, and the Bolsheviks aimed at transfer of power to the soviets where seats would be allocated according to strength, after the revolution only a single party, the Bolsheviks seized power even though it had the second highest mass support. Though the events of 1917 were not “spectacular” in the modern sense of the term, the importance of the revolution lay in the fact that it heralded the start of a new ‘Soviet’ era.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Nicholas V. Riasanovsky: A History of Russia

Lionel Kochan & John Keep: The making of Modern Russia

E.R. Frankel, J. Frankel, B. Knei-Paz (ed.): Revolution in Russia: Reassessments of 1917

–John Channon– “The Peasantry in the revolutions of 1917”

–D.P. Koenker & William G. Rosenberg– “Perceptions & Reality of Labour protest, March to October 1917”

–Neil Harding- “Lenin, Socialism & State in 1917”